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Cover: Red Beach, Camp Pendleton
(Photo by CWO2 Charles Crow, 1st Marine Division/Combat Camera)
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
FOR PROFESSIONALS AND THE PUBLIC
To Professor Samuel Van Valkenburg and Swift:
He stimulated my interest in military geography way back in 1 950;
she was his private secretary, who abandoned civilian life to become my Army bride.
MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
FOR PROFESSIONALS AMD
THE PUBLIC
John M. Collins
1998
National Defense University Press Washington, DC
The Institute for National Strategic Studies (INSS) is a major component of the National Defense University (NDU), which operates under the supervision of the President of NDU. It conducts strategic studies for the Secretary of Defense, Chairman of the joint Chiefs of Staff, and unified commanders in chief; supports national strategic components of NDU academic programs; and provides outreach to other governmental agencies and the broader national security community.
The Publication Directorate of INSS publishes books, monographs, reports, and occasional papers on national security strategy, defense policy, and national military strategy through NDU Press that reflect the output of NDU research and academic programs. In addition, it produces the INSS Strategic Assessment and other work approved by the President of NDU, as well as Joint Force Quarterly, a professional military journal published for the Chairman.
Opinions, conclusions, and recommendations expressed or implied within are solely those of the authors, and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Defense University, the Department of Defense, or any other U.S. Government agency. Cleared for public release; distribution unlimited.
Portions of this book may be quoted or reprinted without permission, provided that a standard source credit line is included. NDU Press would appreciate a courtesy copy of reprints or reviews.
NDU Press publications are sold by the U.S. Government Printing Office. For ordering information, call (202) 512-1 800 or write to the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data
Collins, John M., 1921-
Military Geography for Professionals and the Public / John M. Collins
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57906-002-1 1 . Military geography. I. Title. UA990.C554 1997
355.47— dc21 - 97-34721
OP
First Printing, March 1998
VIII
CONTENTS
FOREWORD XVII
PREFACE by John W. Vessey, Jr XIX
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XXI
AUTHOR'S INTRODUCTION XXIII
1 . OVERVIEW 3
Military Considerations 3
Regional Quirks 5
Avoidable Abuses 7
Analytical Techniques 8
PART ONE: PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
2. SPATIAL RELATIONSHIPS 11
Location 11
Size 17
Shape 18
3. LAY OF THE LAND 27
Land Forms 27
Rivers and Reservoirs 32
Geology and Soils 36
Vegetation 39
4. OCEANS AND SEASHORES 47
Sea Water Attributes 47
Sea Surface Behavior 49
Marine Topography 55
Representative Naval Ramifications 59
5. EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE 69
Atmospheric Phenomena 69
Climatology for Military Strategists 79
Meteorology for Military Operators 80
6. REGIONAL PECULIARITIES 93
Frigid Flatlands 93
Frigid Seas 98
Mountainous Regions 1 02
Arid Regions 1 09
Tropical Rain Forests 115
Wetlands 121
Coastlands and Small Seas 126
7. INNER AND OUTER SPACE 137
Space Compared with Land and Sea 137
Region I: Aerospace Interfaces 139
Region II: Circumterrestrial Space 1 43
Region III: Moon and Environs 1 44
Region IV: Outer Envelope 1 46
Tips for Military Space Planners 1 46
8. NATURAL RESOURCES AND RAW MATERIALS 1 53
Sources and Shortages 153
Compensatory Programs 158
Resource Deprivation 159
PART TWO: CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY
9. POPULATIONS 1 77
Demography 1 78
Physical Attributes 1 80
Cultural Characteristics 1 82
Current Attitudes 1 87
National Personalities 1 88
Cross-Cultural Skills 1 89
1 0. URBANIZATION 1 95
Sites and Structures 1 96
Urban Sprawl 1 98
Conventional Urban Combat 1 99
Unconventional Urban Combat 204
Conventional Urban Bombardment 206
Urban Centers and Nuclear Strategy 208
Overall Urban Vulnerabilities 209
1 1 . LINES OF COMMUNICATION 215
Roads 215
Railroads 223
Military Airports 228
Seaports and Harbors 232
Spaceports and Flight Paths 236
Inland Waterways '. 238
Pipelines 240
12. MILITARY BASES 245
U.S. Home Bases 245
U.S. Cold War Bases Abroad 246
Post-Cold War Retrenchment . . 261
13. FORTRESSES AND FIELD FORTIFICATIONS 267
Precedents and Prognoses 267
Fortified Points 268
Fortified Lines 270
Offensive Fortifications 271
Fortifications in the Nuclear Age 272
Citadels Versus CW and BW Weapons 273
PART THREE: POLITICAL-MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
14. MILITARY SERVICE PREDILECTIONS 277
Diversified Viewpoints 277
Integrated and Updated Views 283
1 5. GEOPOLITICAL FRICTION 285
Territorial Limits 285
Strategic Friction 287
Economic Friction 291
Cultural Friction 293
Environmental Friction 297
1 6. MILITARY AREAS OF RESPONSIBILITY 307
Global Subdivisions 307
Regional Areas of Responsibility 311
Useful Insights 318
Theater and Tactical AORs 318
PART FOUR: AREA ANALYSES
1 7. FORMAT FOR AREA ANALYSIS 339
Geographical Data Bases 339
Military Missions 341
Military Implications 341
Effects on Courses of Action 344
1 8. OPERATION NEPTUNE "347
Selection of the Lodgment Area 347
Description of the Lodgment Area 349
Assessments of the Lodgment Area 355
Effects on Allied Courses of Action 361
Wrap-Up 364
1 9. OPERATION PLAN EL PASO 367
The Ho Chi Minh Trail 367
Mission Planning 377
Logistical Limitations Within Vietnam 380
Logistical Shortcomings Inside Laos 382
Wrap-Up 383
20. FINAL REFLECTIONS . 387
APPENDIX A: Acronyms and Abbreviations 389
APPENDIX B: Glossary of Geographical Terms 391
APPENDIX C: A Basic Geographic Library 407
INDEX 41 7
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 437
FIGURES
1 . Land Forms Displayed Schematically 28
2. Elevation and Local Relief 29
3. Slopes and Gradients 30
4. Line-of-Sight and High-Angle Trajectories 31
5. Selected Stream Characteristics 33
6. Water Tables, Aquifers, and Wells 36
7. Sea Water Stratification 49
8. Lunar and Solar Influences on Tides 52
9. Ocean Wave Motions and Measurements 53
1 0. Conditions Conducive to Surf 53
11. A Typical Beach Profile 56
1 2. Plimsoll Line Markings 60
13. Effects of Wave Action on Ship Stability 61
1 4. Land and Sea Breeze Regimes 72
1 5. Cloud Types Depicted 76
1 6. Cloud Ceilings Related to Terrain 77
1 7. Anatomy of a Thunderstorm 78
1 8. Nuclear Fallout Related to Wind 86
1 9. Conditions Conducive to Avalanches 1 08
20. Typical Coastal Topography 127
21 . Shallow Water Antisubmarine Warfare Suites 130
22. Aerospace Interfaces ,1 40
23. Gravity Versus Space Vehicle Velocity 1 42
24. Earthly and Lunar Gravity Wells 1 45
25. Electromagnetic Pulse Propagation 1 48
26. U.S. and Soviet Mineral and Metal Imports 156
27. Oil Fields and Facilities 1 64
28. Present and Projected World Populations 1 79
29. Assorted Street Systems 1 98
30. Three Layers of Urban Obstacles 202
31. Highway and Byway Attributes 217
32. Bridge Types Depicted 219
33. Bridge Superstructures and Substructures 220
34. Traditional Rail Yard Facilities 227
35. Airfield Construction Stages 231
36. Typical Naval Port Facilities 233
37. Wharf and Pier Configurations 234
38. Offensive Force Boundaries 320
39. Exits Inland from Omaha Beach 359
40. Monsoonal Regimes at Tchepone, Khe Sanh, and Da Nang 375
XII
MAPS
1 . Selected Russian Naval Bases 12
2. Bottlenecks That Inhibit the Russian Navy 13
3. Mao's Long March 19
4. The Battle of the Bulge 21
5. Operation Market Garden 22
6. Beleaguered Berlin 23
7. Regional Vegetation 40
8. Ocean Currents 51
9. Crucial Naval Choke Points During the Cold War 58
1 0. Beaches and Approaches at Inchon 63
1 1 . Regional Climates Depicted 81
1 2. Frigid Flatlands 94
13. Iceberg Routes to the North Atlantic 101
1 4. The "Murmansk Run" 1 02
1 5. The Arctic Ocean and Peripheral Seas 1 03
1 6. Major Mountainous Regions 1 04
1 7. The Himalayan Hump 1 07
1 8. Arid Regions 110
19. Tropical Rain Forests 117
20. The Kokoda Trail and Shaggy Ridge 119
21 . The Pripet Swamp and Its Offshoots 1 23
22. The Mekong Delta and Rung Sat Special Zone 1 24
23. The Earth-Moon System 138
24. Cislunar Space 1 45
25. Japanese Territorial Holdings in 1 942 1 60
26. Saudi Arabian Oil Fields and Facilities 1 63
27. Profile of the Burma Road 222
28. The Trans-Siberian Railroad and Baikal-Amur Magistral 228
29. U.S. and Soviet Space Launch Sites and Control Centers 237
30. Earth Support Satellite Orbits 239
31 . Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) 249
32. U.S. Cold War Arctic Outposts (1 960s) 250
33. U.S. Cold War Bases in Great Britain (1 979) 251
34. U.S. Cold War Bases in France (1 966) 255
35. U.S. Cold War Bases in West Germany (1 979) 256
36. U.S. Cold War Bases in Iberia (1 979) 257
37. U.S. Cold War Bases in Italy (1 979) 258
38. U.S. Cold War Bases in Greece and Turkey (1 979) 259
39. U.S. Cold War Bases in the Philippines (1 979) 262
40. U.S. Cold War Bases in Japan and Korea (1 979) 263
41 . The World According to Mackinder (1 904 and 1 91 9) 279
42. U.S. and Allied Encirclement of the Soviet Union 281
43. De Seversky's View of the Globe 282
44. Soviet Buffers in Central Europe 289
45. Chinese Border Disputes 290
46. The Spratly Islands 292
47. Territorial Claims in Antarctica 294
48. The Horn of Africa 295
49. Boundary Disputes in Jammu and Kashmir 297
XIII
50. U.S. Cold War Areas of Responsibility 310
51 . NATO's Basic Areas of Responsibility 312
52. AFCENT Areas of Responsibility 314
53. Pacific Ocean Area and Southwest Pacific Area 316
54. Amphibious Boundaries at Tarawa 322
55. Route Packages in North Vietnam 324
56. Soviet Core Areas 342
57. Potential Lodgments in Western Europe 348
58. Natural Regions in Northwestern Normandy 350
59. Drainage Patterns in Northwestern Normandy 351
60. Utah, Omaha, Cold, Juno, and Sword Beaches 352
61 . Cross-Channel Routes from England to Normandy 358
62. U.S. Expeditionary Airfields in Manche and Calvados 363
63. The Ho Chi Minh Trail 369
64. The Laotian Panhandle at Midpoint 370
65. Monsoonal Regimes in South Vietnam and Laos 376
66. OPLAN El Paso's Tactical Area of Responsibility 379
67. Supply Requirements Associated with OPLAN El Paso 380
TABLES
1 . Geographic Factors 4
2. Land Forms Listed 28
3. Selected Soil Characteristics 37
4. Beaufort Wind Scale Related to Sea States 54
5. Beaufort Scale Related to Surface Winds Ashore 71
6. Militarily Important Temperature Statistics 72
7. Wind Chill Factors 73
8. Fog Linked to Visibility 74
9. Cloud Classifications 75
1 0. Regional Climates Described '82
1 1 . One Dozen Militarily Useful Minerals and Metals 1 54
1 2. Crude Oil Producers and Proven Reserves 157
13. Military Dead and Missing, World Wars I and II 1 78
1 4. Causes of U.S. Wartime Casualties 181
1 5. Representative Racial, Ethnic, and Tribal Relationships 1 83
1 6. Ten Leading Languages (1 990s) 1 85
1 7. Linguistic Clutter in the Caucasus 1 85
1 8. Principal Religions and Selected Denominations . . . 1 86
1 9. Variable Town and City Components 1 97
20. Present and Projected Megalopoli 1 99
21 . U.S. Military Aircraft Runway Length Calculations 229
22. Advantages Available from the Panama Canal 241
23. U.S. Cold War Collective Security Pacts 248
24. Typical Trouble Spots, Mid-1 990s 288
25. Area Analysis Format 340
26. Selected Climatic Statistics for Manche and Calvados 354
27. Populated Places in Manche and Calvados 355
28. U.S. Expeditionary Airfields in Manche and Calvados 363
29. Transportation on the Ho Chi Minh Trail 368
XIV
30. OPLAN El Paso Airfields 373
31 . OPLAN El Paso Road Opening Schedules 382
32. Schedules for Dual-Laning Route 9 in Laos 383
PHOTOGRAPHS
Amphibious Troops Cross a Coral Reef 1 68
A Typical Tidewater Swamp 1 68
Vehicle Mired in Mud 1 69
Elephant Grass 1 69
Monastery Atop Monte Cassino 1 70
Switchback Curves on the Burma Road 171
Mobility in Mountains 1 72
Rhine River Bridge at Remagen 1 72
Perfume River Bridge at Hue 1 73
Wicked Weather at Changjin Reservoir 1 73
Warm Weather Aids Medics 1 73
Clouds West of Khe Sanh 1 74
Rough Weather vs. Resupply at Sea 1 74
Submarine Surfaces Through Arctic Ice 1 75
"Follow the Leader" Through Antarctic Ice 1 75
Frozen Salt Spray on an Icebreaker 1 76
Water Distribution in the Desert 1 76
Oil Fires in the Kuwaiti Desert 329
Transferring Supplies over Perilous Routes 329
The Berlin Airlift 330
Rock Quarries Facilitate Military Construction 330
An Expeditionary Airstrip 330
A Typical Jungle Helipad 331
The Consequences of Urban Combat 332
Industrial Bomb Damage 333
Siegfried Line Fortifications 334
Cobblestones on Utah Beach 334
Hedgerows Hamper Tanks 334
The Banghiang River at Tchepone 335
Mulberry "A" Before and After Demolishment 336
A Typical Bypass and Ford in Laos 337
Refurbishing Route 9 337
The Abandoned Airfield at Ban Houei Sane . 338
XV
This book will arguably become the most comprehensive treatment of military geography in print. The author presents a sweeping, sophisticated interpretation of the term "geography/' covering not just the lay of the land, but the human beings who live on the land, change it, and are shaped by it. He relates virtually every aspect oT the physical world we live in to every imaginable endeavor in the military realm, from reading a tactical map to conducting a major campaign in some far-flung corner of the Earth. He considers military operations in every geographical environment, while taking into account ever-changing strategies, tactics, and technologies on all levels. He enriches his text with many practical examples that span recorded history. Finally, he writes in plain, direct language to reach the widest possible audience.
The dearth of consolidated studies on the discipline of military geography came to John Collins' attention early in his long and distinguished career as a soldier and scholar. Thus he began and kept up an interest in the subject for more than 40 years, amassing voluminous files on the subject. Finally afforded the opportunity to research and write on his avocation at the National Defense University, he spent 2 years as a Visiting Fellow, tapping not only his own wealth of data and experience but a wide variety of well-informed opinions on every facet of military geography.
The resultant volume, the culmination of a life-long career, fills a gap in the professional and technical literature. The National Defense University is pleased to have hosted John Collins and to publish his work. No other book, to our knowledge, marries military art with that of the geographer so deftly and completely. The volume seems destined to meet its stated purposes for years to come, namely, to provide a textbook for students, a handbook for military professionals, and an enlightening survey for any appreciative lay reader.
RICHARD A. CHILCOAT Lieutenant General, U.S. Army President, National Defense University
XVII
PREFACE
A major American news magazine in the spring of 1 997 included an article about the effects of new technology on national defense. It observed that "In future wars, knowledge may be more important than terrain/' but geography still exerts enormous influence on military operations, war, and security as it has throughout history. Great commanders, past and present, understand that topography, weather, and climate not only affect strategies but battle and support plans. History in fact is replete with enormous penalties incurred by those who paid too little attention to geographic factors.
Military commanders in the "Information Age" will surely receive data more rapidly and consequently know more than their predecessors about battlefield situations. Information technologies may help military planners and operators better understand geographic factors — they may even disprove Clausewitz's contention that "most intelligence is false" — but other words he wrote on that subject are likely to endure: "geography and the character of the ground bear a close and ever-present relation to warfare. They have a decisive influence on the engagement, both as to its course and to its planning and execution."
Geographic influences were omnipresent during my service as an enlisted soldier in the Tunisian desert fighting of 1 942-43, as a junior officer in the Italian mountains 1 943-45, and many years later (1 966-67) as a battalion commander in the totally different terrain of the War Zone C jungles in Vietnam. Those experiences, which were very personal, had a great deal to do with the health and comfort of my comrades and myself; they affected our casualty rates and often posed more formidable challenges than the enemies we faced. I often wondered if we were "victims" of geography or "victims" of the higher command's appreciation for geography.
Those early lessons from geography's "school of hard knocks" were helpful later, when I held positions of greater authority for planning and directing military operations in widely varied geographic circumstances, first as a new brigadier in Laos in 1972-73, then as Commander of the United Nations Command in Korea, 1 976-79, and finally as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. A lot of work and study nevertheless was required by me and my staff officers before we could satisfactorily integrate geography's influence on land, sea, and air operations. Despite our efforts, I suspect that many of the Soldiers, Sailors, Airmen, Marines, and Coast Guardsmen who implemented our plans sometimes felt "victimized" by geography or our lack of appreciation for it, just as I felt so many years earlier.
The Armed Forces of the United States have been, and will continue to be, committed to every conceivable type of military operation in every conceivable geographic environment. Whether for war-fighting, war-preventing, or peacekeeping operations, they must prepare to excel wherever they are sent — all too commonly on short notice. Military Geography for Professionals and the Public, a textbook and handbook written in simple, straightforward
XIX
terms that tie relevant factors together in a fashion understandable to lay readers as well as the uniformed professionals of all military services, is a rare, if not unique, survey of relationships between geography and military affairs. It ought to be required reading for policymakers, military planners, commanders, and staff officers at all levels. It also will be a very useful reference for political leaders, educators, members of the news media, and concerned citizens in the 'Information age." I wish it had been in my knapsack for the past 55 years.
JOHN W. VESSEY, JR.
General, U.S. Army (Ret.)
Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1 982-1 985
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book is my legacy to the U.S. military education system that has done so much for me since 1942, from basic courses through the Army Command and General Staff College, the Armed Forces Staff College, the Industrial College of the Armed Forces, and the National War College. It helped me expand my professional horizons for 55 years and has kept me gainfully employed since retirement on January 3, 1 996.
General John M. Shalikashvili, as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, arranged a perch for me at National Defense University (NDU), the perfect place to research and write a book about military geography or any other subject related to the profession of arms. "Hard core" contacts with extensive practical experience and assorted persuasions thereafter answered countless spot requests for information, helped me overcome mental blocks, and rigorously reviewed the first draft chapter-by-chapter during the gestation period.
Two retired Army four-star generals merit special mention in that regard: General Frederick J. Kroesen identified the need for "Key Points" at the end of each chapter; General Robert C. Kingston, the first Commander in Chief of U.S. Central Command, became the world's highest ranking research assistant. Lieutenant General William H. Ginn, Jr., U.S. Air Force (Ret), scrubbed bits about military air operations.
Army Colonel James H. Kurtz and Navy Captain John W. McGillvray, both former division chiefs in the Joint Staffs Directorate for Strategic Plans and Policy (J-5), furnished a landslide of facts, opinions, anecdotes, and source materials on almost every subject. Colonel Bill Allen represented the U.S. Army War College. Retired Army Major General John Murray, a life-long transportation specialist, and Herb Longhelt, Deputy Chief Engineer for AMTRAC, sharpened my views about lines of communication. Dr. Ed Whitman, who works for the Oceanographer of the Navy, helped a whole lot within his field. Colonel "Westy" Westenhoff, then assigned to the Air Force Deputy Chief of Staff for Plans and Operations, Scot Crerar at Betac Corporation, retired Army Colonel Chester B. McCoid (my boss long ago in the 82nd Airborne Division), and Patrick O'Sullivan, a professor who emphasizes military geography, likewise made me think. So did my son Sean Kevin, whose doctorate in aeronautical and astronautical engineering from Massachusetts Institute of Technology underpinned much of Chapter 7 (Inner and Outer Space).
Ed Bruner, Steve Bowman, Bob Goldich, Clyde Mark, and George Siehl, all former colleagues from the Congressional Research Service (CRS), brought broad, in-depth knowledge to bear from start to finish. Other former CRS colleagues with specialized expertise included Bob Bamberger (petroleum); Marjorie Browne (law of the sea); Ray Copson (Africa); Rich Cronin and Barbara LePoer (India and Pakistan); Ida Eustis (legal matters); Susan Fletcher (environmental problems); Rick Greenwood (minerals and metals); Dick Grimmett (U.S. overseas bases); Dianne Rennack and Barbara Hennix (finders of the
XXI
unfindable); Shirley Kan (China); Julie Kim (former Warsaw Pact countries and former Yugoslavia); Jon Medalia (strategic nuclear capabilities); Al Prados (Middle East); Rinn-Sup Shinn (Korea); Stan Sloan (NATO); Marsha Smith (space); Bob Sutter and Kerry Dumbaugh (East Asia).
Nine members of the Campaign Planning Group, U.S. Army Vietnam in 1967-1968 painstakingly pieced together input for Chapter 1 9 (Operation Plan El Paso): Army Lieutenant Colonels Dominic Canestra, the Deputy Chief; Robert Duvall (Army aviation), Robert Rufsvold, who was wounded in action on an aerial reconnaissance mission during December 1 967 (engineering); David Hutchison, his replacement; and Reed Schultz (operations); Army Majors Bert Esworthy (intelligence) and George Pitts (land transportation); Air Force Majors John Pohle (weather) and Edward Reed (tactical airlift).
The National Defense University library reference staff provided peerless support. None could have been more knowledgeable; all repeatedly stopped whatever they were doing to help. I therefore owe great gratitude to Sarah Mikel, the Director, Ann Parham, Chief of the Research and Information Services Division, Robert Adamshick, Bonnie Dziedzic (who helped a lot with maps), Jeanmarie Faison, Howard Hume (who met me many weekday mornings before 0600), Jane Johnson, Benard Strong, Bruce Thornlow (who assisted on many Saturday mornings), and Carolyn Turner.
Colonel James V. Dugar, ANG, President of the NDU Foundation, and Colonel Thomas E. Gallagher, USA (Ret.), his Executive Director, admirably administered funds that the Smith Richardson Foundation donated to convert draft maps and figures into professional products at Art Services, Inc., where Andy Hemstreet skillfully responded to all requests. Jim Peters, who is Production Coordinator for Joint Force Quarterly, helped me assemble suitable photographs. So did Fred Rainbow at the U.S. Naval Institute and Colonel Tom Vossler, who oversees the U.S. Army Military History Institute. Fred Kiley ensured that Military Geography for Professionals and the Public enjoyed a high priority at the onset; and Robert A. Silano, his successor as Director of Publications, brought the project to completion and planned the book's launch. George Maerz and the staff of NDU Press contributed at various stages to the editorial process.
Swift, my versatile bride, performed every administrative, logistical, and fiscal task for the Collins household while I struggled to finish this project, which never would have reached fruition without her help. Finally, I recognize the index finger of my right hand, the nail of which was driven into my wrist before it finished hunt-and-peck typing the entire draft, because I was quite unfamiliar with any computer.
JOHN M. COLLINS Alexandria, Virginia March 1998
MJTHOR'S INTRODUCTION
When a Chief of the Imperial General Staff wrote that he had ''never had time to study the details of military [geography]" . . . it was as if the President of the Royal College of Surgeons said he never had time to study anatomy, or do any dissection.
B. H. Liddell Hart Thoughts on War
NO SAVANT EVER TAUGHT MILITARY GEOGRAPHY TO PERSIAN MONARCHS CYRUS, CAMBYSES, DARIUS, AND
Xerxes, who assembled the world's first sprawling empire that by 480 B. C. stretched from the Indus River to the Aegean Sea. Teenage Alexander learned a lot at Aristotle's knee before he conquered even larger territories 1 50 years later, but military geography was not one of his tutor's strong points. Ghenghis Khan, whose Golden Horde rode roughshod across Eurasia in the 13th century A. D., established the record for seizing real estate by force of arms without resort to any book about military geography in his saddlebags.
Modern warfare, however, is so complex that commanders at every level must consistently manipulate geographic influences advantageously to gain a decisive edge. Most soldiers, sailors, airmen, and marines unfortunately learn painful lessons mainly from the school of hard knocks, because few schools and colleges conduct courses in military geography, none confers a degree, instructional materials seldom emphasize fundamentals, and most service manuals have tunnel vision. The four-volume bibliography compiled at West Point, which is 4 inches thick and totals several thousand citations on 1,059 pages, addresses an admirable scope but is minimally useful to most uniformed practitioners of military art, their civilian supervisors, concerned citizens, and members of the news media, because many of them lack easy access to the sources cited while others are too busy to bother.
My contacts in the Pentagon and Congress were bemused when I began to write this book, because they had never heard of a discipline called "military geography." That reaction came as no surprise; after all, members of the Association of American Geographers at their 92nd annual meeting in April 1 996 debated heatedly before they finally decided to establish a military geography specialty group. This consolidated guide, designed to fill undesirable gaps, has a threefold purpose:
• To provide a textbook for academic use
• To provide a handbook for use by political-military professionals
• To enhance public appreciation for the impact of geography on military affairs.
XXIII
Parts One and Two, both of which are primers, view physical and cultural geography from military perspectives. Part Three probes the influence of political-military geography on service roles and missions, geographic causes of conflict, and complex factors that affect military areas of responsibility. Part Four describes analytical techniques that relate geography to sensible courses of military action, then puts principles into practice with two dissimilar case studies — one emphasizes geographic influences on combat operations, while the other stresses logistics. Each chapter terminates with key points, which final reflections reinforce and relate to time-tested Principles of War.
The text at no time tells readers what to think. It simply tells them how, in jargon-free terms that disregard technical details (neither British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig nor corporals who led his squads through Flanders fields in 1917 cared a whit whether Passchendaele Ridge was a product of tectonic upheaval or glacial depositions). Concise historical examples and the probable influence of technological trends help illuminate past, present, and future relationships between geography and military affairs. Notes at the end of each chapter encourage students of the subject to pursue topics of particular interest in greater breadth and depth. Maps and figures are plentiful throughout, but readers nevertheless should keep a world atlas handy.
Military Geography for Professionals and the Public, which considers every form of warfare and every military service at strategic, operational, and tactical levels, is intended for audiences abroad as well as in the United States, and therefore is generally couched in generic terms. Consequently, its contents should be almost as sound at the end of the 21 st century as at the beginning, regardless of political, military, economic, social, scientific, technological, and other changes in this volatile world that inevitably will occur during the next ten decades.
( MILITARY GEOGRAPHY
FOR PROFESSIONALS AND THE PUBLIC
OVERVIEW
When I took a decision, or adopted an alternative, it was after studying every relevant . . . factor. Geography, tribal structure, religion, social customs, language, appetites, standards— all were at my finger-ends.
T. E. Lawrence Letter to B.H. Liddell Hart, June 1 933
WEBSTER'S THIRD NEW INTERNATIONAL DICTIONARY DEFINES GEOGRAPHY AS "A SCIENCE THAT DEALS WITH
the Earth and its life; especially the description of land, sea, air, and the distribution of plant and animal life including man and his industries with reference to the mutual relations of these diverse elements." The next edition likely will add space to the list. Geography consequently embraces a spectrum of physical and social sciences from agronomy to zoology. In simple terms, it describes what the environment is like at any given place and time.
MILITARY CONSIDERATIONS
Military geography, one of several subsets within those broad confines, concentrates on the influence of physical and cultural environments over political-military policies, plans, programs, and combat/support operations of all types in global, regional, and local contexts. Key factors displayed in table 1 directly (sometimes decisively) affect the full range of military activities: strategies, tactics, and doctrines; command, control, and organizational structures; the optimum mix of land, sea, air, and space forces; intelligence collection; targeting; research and development; the procurement and allocation of weapons, equipment, and clothing; plus supply, maintenance, construction, medical support, education, and training.1
PHYSICAL FACTORS
Spatial relationships, arguably the most fundamental of all geographic factors, concern the location, size, and shape of land areas, together with the presence and configuration of intervening waters. Relative positions and modes of transportation determine transit times between any two sites. Total length, width, and area determine the amount of maneuver room available and the relative security or vulnerability of key points within any piece of militarily important property.
Land forms constitute the stage whereon military pageants play ashore. Relief, drainage patterns, geology, and soils are pertinent topics. High-level strategists, airmen, and astronauts see mountains and valleys, plateaus and lowland plains. Frontline soldiers, who
deal with details instead of big pictures, have vastly different viewpoints — hummocks, gullies, river banks and bottoms loom large from their foreshortened perspectives. Bill Mauldin put it best in his book Up Front when dogface Willie sitting in a shell crater said to Joe, "Th' hell this ain't the most important hole in th' world. I'm in it."2
Table 1 . Geographic Factors
Physical Factors
Spatial Relationships Topography and Drainage Geology and Soils Vegetation
Oceans and Seashores Weather and Climate Daylight and Darkness Gravity and Magnetism
Cultural Factors
Racial and Ethnic Roots Population Patterns Social Structures Languages and Religions Industries and Land Use Transportation Networks Telecommunications Military Installations
Natural vegetation varies from lush to nearly nonexistent. Treeless tundra, the coniferous taiga that blankets much of Siberia, tropical rain forests, elephant grass, scrub, and cacti create drastically different military environments. Bonneville's salt encrusted flats and Okefenokee Swamp both are basically horizontal, but the former is bare while the latter is luxuriant. The Sahara Desert, sere except for widely scattered oases, bears scant resemblance to the densely wooded Arakan Range in Burma, where the height and spacing of trees, trunk diameters, stem densities, foliage, and duff (rotting materials on the floor) are cogent military considerations.
Mariners properly contend that the importance of oceans is almost impossible to overstate, since water covers almost three-fourths of the Earth's surface — the Pacific Ocean alone exceeds the area of all continents and islands combined. Seas and large lakes, typified by the Caribbean, Caspian, and Mediterranean, separate or subdivide major land masses. Waves, tides, currents, water temperatures, and salinity everywhere limit options open to surface ships and submarines. Straits, channels, reefs, and other topographical features do likewise along littorals.
Earth's atmosphere envelops armed forces everywhere aloft, ashore, and afloat. Temperatures, precipitation in the form of rain, hail, ice, sleet, or snow, winds, and relative humidity, along with daylight and darkness, command close attention because they strongly affect the timing, conduct, and support of peacetime and combat operations. Stiff penalties accompany failure to heed their implications. History has repeatedly witnessed armies mired in mud axle-deep to a ferris wheel, fleets blown off course like the ill-fated Spanish Armada, and bombers as flightless as goonie birds, grounded by gales or fog.
Inner and outer space constitutes a fourth distinctive geographic medium, along with land, sea, and air. Only a tiny fraction thus far has been exploited for military purposes, but operations farther afield for many imaginative purposes are conceivable within a relatively short time frame.
OVERVIEW
CULTURAL FACTORS
People top the list of cultural considerations that deserve close attention for political-military reasons. Census statistics reveal population size, distribution, age groups, the percentage of males compared with females, and urban versus rural densities. Other militarily important characteristics include native intelligence, languages, dialects, literacy, customs, beliefs, patriotism, attitudes toward "outsiders" (indifference, respect, resentment, hostility), discipline, morale, temperament (passive or aggressive), and the prevalence of endemic diseases. Virgil singled out the will to win with these words in his Eclogues VII 2,000 years ago: "It never troubles the wolf how many the sheep be."
Relations among racial, ethnic, tribal, and religious groups merit special attention, because alienation often leads to armed conflict. Immense psychological significance attends some cultural icons, such as shrines, national cemeteries, other hallowed ground, even entire cities. A former Commanding General of NATO's Central Army Group repeatedly told his subordinates, "If we go to war against the Warsaw Pact tomorrow we can't allow the first day's headline to read 'Nurnberg Falls/ because the blow to allied morale would be devastating."
Natural resources, land use, and industries, which underpin combat capabilities and the staying power of friends as well as foes, contribute essentially to national security. Food is the irreducible foundation, followed by raw materials and facilities for converting them to usable goods. Basic ingredients feature, but by no means are confined to, agriculture, animal husbandry, and fisheries; minerals and metals; petroleum, electrical, and nuclear power; water supplies; manufacturing plants; stone, brick, concrete, lumber, and other construction staples. Only a few nations now possess the economic potential for great military power. None is wholly self-sufficient, thus external sources of sustenance and degrees of control over them are geographically consequential.
Transportation networks expedite or impede abilities of statesmen and military commanders to employ armed forces intercontinentally, regionally, or locally. Roads, railways, inland waterways, airfields, and seaports, conveniently located in proper combinations, enable formations of requisite size and type to reach objective areas promptly from distant staging bases, then maneuver effectively. Land, sea, and air lanes that hamper abilities to do so raise the cost of mission accomplishment in terms of time, lives, and money expended. Severe deficiencies may even render requisite military actions infeasible because, as wags are wont to say, "You can't get there from here."
Telecommunication systems (radio, television, telephone, telegraph, space communication satellites, the internet, and submarine cables) facilitate integrated action by uniservice, joint, and multinational armed forces. The type, attributes, and geographic distribution of military and civilian fixed-plant facilities in foreign countries accordingly interest commanders and staffs who hope to use those assets and deny them to enemies. Central offices, substations, transmission lines, repeaters, transfer points, alternative routings, redundant capabilities, power sources, and maintenance installations are prime concerns.
REGIONAL QUIRKS
Geographic regions on Earth and in space are reasonably homogeneous areas containing distinctive topography, climate, vegetation, and cultural features (or lack thereof) that exert
OVERVIEW
relatively uniform effects on military policies, plans, programs, and operations. Several classification systems are in competition. One accentuates surface configurations that may be hilly or horizontal, smooth or serrated, on land or under the sea. Others attach climatic labels: arctic, subarctic, temperate, and tropical or cold-wet, cold-dry, hot-wet, hot-dry, each accompanied by distinctive fauna and flora.3
Geographic regions suitable for military operations sometimes are stacked vertically. Hannibal's army and elephant train traversed cultivated fields at low elevations before they climbed through deciduous forests, a band of evergreens, meadows above the tree line, and expanses of bare rock when they navigated the Alps en route from Gaul to Italia as winter approached in 218 B.C. Temperature gradients were as steep as the slopes, mild near the base but frigid in the Col de la Traversette Pass at 10,000 feet (3,050 meters), where winds were wild and snow already lay deep. The entire entourage, being unacclimated, must have gasped for breath from exertions in thin air near the top.4 Spacecraft crews become familiar with five geographic regions stacked one above the other as they fly through the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere en route to circumterrestrial space about 60 miles (95 kilometers) above Earth, where aerodynamic drag and frictional heat lose most of their significance.5
Armed forces expressly prepared for employment in any given environment normally function less well elsewhere until they complete time-consuming and costly transitions. They must become familiar with new topography, climatic conditions, and social systems, modify their techniques, then tailor weapons, equipment, clothing, and supplies to suit the situation. Formations optimized for warfare in rain forests prepare to cope with heat, humidity, leaches, and insects. Dehydration and tropical diseases may cause more casualties than enemy ammunition if troops fail to take proper precautions. Poorly maintained weapons malfunction from rust and molds. Foot soldiers in lightweight uniforms that blend well with surroundings take precedence over tanks and trucks, aerial reconnaissance is severely restricted, small unit tactics predominate. Formations optimized for cold climes in contrast require white parkas, mittens, and insulated boots; lined sleeping bags; skis, snowshoes, snowmobiles, and sleds; tents with stoves; antifreezes; low-viscosity lubricants; hot meals with high caloric contents; and retraining.6
Navies fully prepared for "blue water" warfare must modify modi operand! along continental shelves, where adversaries ashore as well as afloat can take advantage of short flight times for aircraft and antiship missiles to strike with minimum warning. Mines, minisubmarines, and "frogmen" are other potential menaces. Maneuver room along littorals is often limited. Sensors and communication systems able to work effectively in coastal waters must supplement or replace those designed for use in, on, or over deep seas. Differentiation of friends from foes poses complex problems where civilian and military air and sea traffic mingle.7
Military regions and political boundaries seldom coincide. Most nations consequently contain two or more geographic subdivisions that complicate planning, preparations, and operations, jungles and swamps by no means blanket Vietnam; the Pleiku Plateau, for example, is made to order for armor. Austria is by no means all alpine. Cultural factors often introduce militarily important inconsistencies within regions that are topographically and climatically coherent. Saudi Arabia harbors urban oases in an otherwise nearly empty nation
OVERVIEW
that is everywhere arid and displays only a handful of prominent physiographic features other than mountains along the Red Sea coast.
AVOIDABLE ABUSES
Policymakers, strategists, and tacticians can expect unpleasant surprises whenever they overlook the fact that many geographic factors fluctuate in response to seasonal, cyclical, or random change. Nuclear combat, however restrained, could instantaneously turn urban battlefields into rubble, transitions from night to day alter radio propagatio