ICAR

INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

NEW DELHI

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Vegetables, Tubercrops and Spices

Technical Editors

S Thamburaj Narendra Singh

HlJP 3WJI ICAR

Published by

Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH New Delhi

First Printed	July 2001
First Reprint	September 2003
Second Reprint	March 2005
Third Reprint	August 2013
Fourth Reprint	July 2014
Fifth Reprint	November 2015
Sixth Reprint	September 2016
Seventh Reprint	January 2018

Project Director (DKMA)	Dr S K Singh
In charge (English Editorial Unit)	Dr Aruna T Kumar
Chief Production Officer	Dr V K Bharti
Assistant Chief Technical Officer	Ashok Shastri

ISBN : 81 -71 64-001 -X

Price : Rs 700/-

Published by Dr S K Singh, Project Director, Directorate of Knowledge Management in Agriculture, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Krishi Anusandhan Bhavan, Pusa, New Delhi and printed at M/s Chandu Press, 469, Patparganj Industrial Estate, Delhi-110 092.

F

Agricultural education is passing through a metamorphic stage of development, which hinges upon teaching, research and extension interface. Having achieved the tremendous progress in research and technology transfer, the focus of planning is now on Human Resource Development and Human Resource Management in agriculture. Future generation of learners in agriculture will have to compete in a totally new environnient having the characteristics of globalization, internationali¬ zation, innovation and skills development. In these new paradigms, ICAR has started providing necessary facilities and help to those teachers who bring out textbooks and manuals written with a practical bias.

The Textbook of Vegetables , Tubercrops and Spices is a valuable addition to the upcoming collection of literature for undergraduate students. I appreciate the com¬ mendable efforts made by Dr SHhamburaj, former Dean, College of Horticulture and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore and Dr Narender Singh, Former Head, Vegetable Crops Division, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi in editing this publication. The scholarly contributions made by different scientists form the strong backbone of the publication. I am sure that this publication will be an important source-book for the stakeholders in agricultural teaching.

R S PARODA

Secretary, Department of Agricultural Research and Education

Ministry of Agriculture Director-General

Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi 110 001

14 June 2000

■

Preface

Horticulture is gaining importance as it gives more return per unit area and also gives nutritious food to human beings thereby improves quality of life and enhances the aesthetic beauty in nature. Indian Council of Agricultural Research has recog¬ nized the education curricula and tried to bring uniformity in agricultural education in the country.

We are thankful to the Education Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research for entrusting us with the job of preparing this textbook for under¬ graduates in horticulture especially vegetable science. The textbook Vegetables, Tubercrops and Spices is written as per revised syllabus of vegetable science for undergraduate students of the entire country. The authors for different chapters are eminent scientists, teachers and vegetable specialists of the country and have spent most of their life in the field of vegetable science research. We are extremely thankful to them for sparing their valuable time.

We are sure that this textbook will be extremely useful to undergraduate students and teachers. This will also find favour among vegetable research workers, extension workers and farmers of the country.

We are thankful to Dr R S Paroda, DG and Secretary DARE, Dr S L Mehta, the then DDG Education, Dr K L Chadha, former DDG(H) and National Professor (Horticulture) and Dr Kirti Singh, former Chairman ASRB and living dion of vegetable science for giving valuable suggestions and encouragement for preparing this book.

Our thanks are due to Dr D Veeraragavathatham and Dr Vijay Kumaran of TNAU Coimbatore, Dr A K Chakrabarti, Dr Netrapal, Dr S R Sharma, Dr Gyanendra Singh, Mrs Sheela Khullar, Mr Vimal Kant and other scientific staff of Division of Vegetable Crops, LARI, New Delhi for providing unlimited help in preparing and checking the manuscript.

TThamburaj Narendra Singh

.

Foreword

Preface

Importance of vegetables Solanaceous vegetables

• Tomato

• Brinjal

• Chillies and capsicum

Cole crops

• Cauliflower

• Cabbage

• Broccoli

• Brussels sprout

• Knol khol

Root crops

• Radish

• Carrot

• Beet root

• Turnip

Bulb crops

• Onion

• Garlic

Peas and Beans

• Pea

• French bean

• Cowpea

• Cluster bean

• Indian bean

• Lima bean

• Broad bean

• Winged bean

Okra

Cucurbitaceous vegetables

• Muskmelon

• Cucumber

• Watermelon

1

10

76

147

165

196

222

238

CONTENTS

• Bottle gourd

• Bitter gourd

• Summer squash

• Snake gourd

• Pumpkin

• Pointed gourd

• Ivy gourd

• Ash gourd

• Chow chow

• Ridge and sponge gourd

• Disease and pests of cucurbits

Potato

Sweet potato

Leafy and salad vegetables

• Palak

• Spinach

• Lettuce

• Amaranth

• Chinese cabbage

Herbal vegetables and spices

• Fenugreek

• Coriander

• Cumin

• Herbal spices

13. Perennial vegetables

• Bread fruit

• Drumstnck

• Cassava

• Yams

• Asparagus

• Globe Ardchoke

• Rhubarb

• Chow chow

• Curry Leaf

• Chekurmanis

• Ceylon Spinach or waterleaf

• Basella

• Minor Tubercrops

Bibliography Subject index

Names and addresses of contributors

320

341

351

364

398

452

455

468

A K Chakrabarti

vegetab

es

Vegetables comprise of a large number of plants, mostly annual, of which different parts like leaf, stem, flower bud, flower, fruit, root etc. are eaten. They are rich in nutrients and are essential items of a balanced diet. Vegetables are called protective food as their consumption can prevent several diseases. Many vegetables are important items of commerce and thus can play a major role in the economic development.

VEGETABLES AS A SOURCE OF NUTRIENTS

We eat food for sustenance of our body. The food we eat contains nourishing substances called nutrients. There are five major nutrients, namely carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals and vitamins. The first three are required in larger quantities and all of them supply energy to keep the body going. Vitamins and minerals are required in small amounts. They do not supply energy but are required for physiological processes and metabolic activities of our body. Vegetables and fruits are the only natural sources of protective food supplying all the nutrients especially minerals, vitamins and crude fibre. Vegetables are rich in and are comparatively cheaper source of vitamins and minerals. They are not, in general, considered to be the primary source of carbohydrate, protein and fat. However, some of them with underground storage roots and tubers are rich in carbohydrate, particularly starch, m quantities comparable with cereal crops. Vegetables which are rich source of carbohydrate are potato, sweet potato, colocasia, yam, tapioca or cassava, elephant-foot yam etc. The leguminous vegetables such as pea, cowpea and all beans like french bean, hyacinth or lablab bean, broad bean, cluster bean etc. are rich in protein and supply as high as 14% protein, the dry seeds supplying still more. Vegetables are not rich in fat content which is less than 0.1% in most of them. Most of the leafy vegetables and root crops are rich in minerals. Major mineral elements which are obtained from vegetables are calcium, iron and phosphorus. Some of the leafy vegetables are also rich in micro-elements such as copper, manganese and zinc. Vitamin A is produced m our body from carotene which is present in higher amounts in leafy vegetables, carrot, sweet potato, pumpkin, colocasia, turnip green, knol khol leaves etc. Vitamin B is present in appreciable amount in pea, beans, garlic, tomato, colocasia, asparagus etc. itajmin C rich vegetables are cauliflower, cabbage, knol khol, turnip, tomato, pepper, drumstick leaves, fenugreek leaves, amaranth etc. Most leafy vegetables are rich in carotene

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

(provitamin A), riboflavin (vitamin B2) and minerals. It has been estimated that lOOg of tropical leafy vegetables can provide 60-1 40mg of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), lOOpg of folic acid, 4-7mg iron and 200-400mg of calcium. Consumption of lOOg of leafy vegetables a day can supply 15% or more of the total protein intake. Only 30g of leaves will be sufficient to meet the requirements of vitamin A and C. The B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin and niacin) will be increased by 15-30%, and the entire requirement of folic acid will be met. Vegetables also play a key role in neutralizing the acids produced during digestion of proteins and fatty foods and also provide roughages in the form of dietary fibre which help in digestion and bowel movement. The nutrient composition of vegetables is given in Table 1.

Balanced diet

Vegetables play an important role in the balanced diet by providing not only energy but also supplying vital protective nutrients like minerals and vitamins. Scientists in India have carried out several careful experiments to find out how much of each nutrient is needed by persons of various ages every day. The requirement varies with age and a man needs more calories (energy) and proteins than a woman. When a woman is pregnant or nursing a baby, her need for calories and proteins goes up. She also needs more calcium, iron and vitamins. Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) has given a recommendation that an average man needs daily a diet which can provide 2,800 calories, 55g protein, 450mg calcium, 20mg iron, 3000(lg (3-carotene vitamin A, 50mg vitamin C, lOOpg folic acid, l.Opg vitamin B12,1.4mg thiamine, 1.5mg riboflavin, 19mg niacin and 5(ig vitamin D. Lists have been drawn up showing the quantities of different food materials which men, women and children of various age groups should eat every day to get these nutrients. These are called balanced diets. It has been said earlier that vegetables play an important role in a balanced diet. According to the recommendation given by ICMR, an average man with vegetarian or non vegetarian food habit should consume 125g of green leafy vegetables, lOOg of roots and tubers and 75g other vegetables. The recommendation for an average woman is more or less same with exception in roots and tubers which should be consumed @ 75g per day.

Flavour compounds

In addition to their role in nutrition, vegetables increase attractiveness and palatability of a diet by providing sensory appeal through their variety of colour and flavour. They contain some volatile flavour compounds in the intact tissues while some are produced by the action of enzymes when the tissue is cut or crushed. The flavour compounds in vegetables include (l) volatiles like aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, sulphur compounds, aromatic hydrocarbons etc. and (ii) non-volatiles like organic acids, sugar, fatty acids and ammo acids. The characteristic flavour of

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cole crops is due to volatile sulphur compound dimethyl trisulphide. Similarly the pungency and flavour of onion are due to a volatile sulphur compound allyl propyl disulphide. The garlic flavour is caused by sulphur compound diallyl disulphide.

Toxic substances

Some vegetables contain harmful chemical compounds such as trypsin inhibitors, phytate and oxalate, which pose serious nutritional problems. Trypsin inhibitors are found in beans, particularly raw soybeans which inhibit proteolytic enzyme activity. Thus, hydrolysis of proteins to ammo acids is affected. Phytic acid (inositol hexaphosphoric acid) present in mature seeds of peas and beans, can combine with calcium and iron from other foods in the diet and render them unavailable, thereby causing deficiency of these minerals in the body. Some leafy vegetables, namely amaranth, Portulaca, Celosia and Basella and root vegetables like colocasia contain appreciable amounts of oxalic acid and oxalates. Oxalic acid converts calcium from food consumed to insoluble calcium oxalate, rendering it unavailable for absorption. Calcium oxalate present as fine crystals in colocasia and elephant foot yam can cause itching of the fingers and pricking sensation of the tongue and throat. This problem can be overcome by adding a little tamarind or citric acid to the cooking water and then discarding the water. Tapioca leaves contain some glucosides which may liberate toxic hydrocynic acid by the action of enzyme in the stomach. It is highly volatile, and therefore any preparation involving heating renders leaves harmless. Some species of yam ( Dioscorea sp.) contain a toxic alkaloid, diosconne, which can be made harmless by boiling. Potato tubers, when exposed to light become green and produce an alkaloid, solanin which is bitter in taste and is harmful when consumed in large amounts.

VEGETABLES IN DISEASE PREVENTION

Apart from providing nutrition, vegetables provide protection against many diseases. They are used in traditional system of medicine in several countries including India. For example, bitter gourd is used in India for treating diabetes; the ash gourd is useful for patients with weak nervous system. The use of vegetables in traditional system of medicine has been dealt with under individual vegetables in this book. With the advancement of science, researchers have identified several chemical compounds from vegetables which have therapeutic effect against several ailments. These compounds are known as phytoceuticals. Most potent among them are antioxidants and bioflavonoids.

Antioxidants

These are substances which neutralize free radicals that are formed during metabolism of foods, or by smoking, or exposure to pollutants. Until neutralised,

6

IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES

free radicals damage various body cells thus causing many degenerative diseases associated with ageing, such as heart disease, cancer, arthritis etc. They can attack blood vessels causing thickening of the arteries and can damage brain cells causing loss of memory, paralysis etc. Antioxidants neutralize these free radicals neutralising thus defending the body from the damage caused by them. Our body produces some antioxidant enzymes which prevent free radical damage. Free radicals are also neutralised by vitamins (A, Bt B5 B6> niacin, C, E), minerals like selenium and amino acids, some of which are present in adequately higher amounts in some vegetables. For example, most leafy vegetables, carrot, sweet potato, pumpkin and turnip green are rich in betacarotene (pro vitamin A); beans and pea are rich in essential ammo acids.

Bioflavonoids

Bioflavonoids which are compounds closely associated with vitamin C are found in several vegetables. They increase the efficiency of vitamin C and protect the body from free radicals. One such bioflavonoid identified from onion and garlic is quercetin, which has been indicated to give protection against cancer and heart diseases.

Other compounds

Onion and garlic contain several sulphur compounds such as allicin, allistalin, garlicin, diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide and allyl propyl disulphide which are effective in reducing harmful blood cholesterol, thus preventing coronary thrombosis, heart attack and stroke. They are also effective against some bacteria. Cole crops contain indoles and dithiolthiones which are effective in prevention of cancers of the colon, rectum and breast. A hypoglycaemic ingredient, cheratin, has been isolated from the fruits of bitter gourd which is effective against diabetes. Diphenyl amine found in onion is also effective against diabetes. Leguminous vegetables reduce blood cholesterol concentration thus preventing heart attack and stroke. Celery contains 3-n-butyl pthalide which is effective against hypertension. Some chemicals that help lower cholesterol from the blood have been detected from brinjal. It is also rich in bioflavonoids which can prevent stomach cancer. Certain species of yams contain a substance called diosgenin which is used in the manufacture of cortisone and contraceptive drugs.

VEGETABLES IN THE ECONOMY

India is the world’s second largest producer of vegetables next only to China. Vegetable crops in India occupy only 2.8% of the total cultivated land producing 87.5 million tonnes of vegetables annually including potato from an area of 5.8 million ha. India shares 12% of world production of vegetables with a productivity

7

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Table 2 Production of vegetables* in leading states of India (1997-98)

States	Area (million ha)	Production (million tonnes)	Productivity (tonnes/ha)
West Bengal	1.1	16.4	14.9
Uttar Pradesh	0.6	12.7	19.8
Orissa	0.9	10.1	11.4
Bihar	0.6	9.4	15.2
Tamil Nadu	0.2	5.7	27.1
Karnataka	0.3	4.9	15.9
Maharashtra	0.3	4.5	13.2
Andhra Pradesh	0.3	3.5	14.2

‘Including potato

Source: Indian Horticulture Database, National Horticulture Board (2000).

of about 15 tonnes per ha which is quite low as compared to many countries. The present production is not sufficient to meet the requirement of 285g of vegetables, on an average, per capita per day. At present our per capita availability is around 145g per day. By the end of 2030, according to an estimate, we will need 151-193 million tonnes of vegetables to meet our requirement. Therefore, it is necessary that production of vegetables including root and tuber crops is increased at a much faster rate. Area, production and productivity of leading vegetable producing states of India are given in Table 2.

Vegetable crops give higher yield per unit area as compared to other crops. Most of the vegetables, if properly grown, can give six to ten times more yield than any cereal crop. Presently, yield per unit area of most of the vegetables in India is very low. There exists lot of scope for increasing yield in most of the vegetables by growing high yielding varieties/hybrids and adopting improved production technologies. This will ensure a balanced diet to the common man and a higher income' to the farmers. This will also generate additional farm employment. Cultivation of vegetable crops being more labour intensive than cereal crops will be helpful for seasonally under-employed farm workers in increasing their income. Most vegetable crops are of short-duration. With proper planning, three or more crops can be grown in the same plot in one year.

Export

Another important area is export of fresh or processed vegetables. Today, horticultural crops contribute about 25% of the total agricultural exports of the country. During 1997-98, India exported fresh vegetables worth Rs 306.33 crore and processed vegetables worth Rs 108.88 crore. It also exported fruit/vegetable seeds worth Rs 56.07 crore, thus earning valuable foreign exchange for the country. Of all the fresh vegetables exported, the share of onion is around 75%. Other

8

IMPORTANCE OF VEGETABLES

traditional vegetables which are presently exported are potato, gherkin or small cucumber, okra, bitter gourd, chilli, cauliflower and some root vegetables.

In addition to these traditional vegetables, non-traditional vegetables which have been identified by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) to have export potential are asparagus, celery, sweet pepper, sweet corn, baby corn, green pea, french bean and cherry tomato. Among processed vegetables, major demand is for dehydrated onion and garlic and preserved gherkin or small cucumber. Canned and frozen vegetables also have good demand. Countries which import traditional vegetables like onion, potato, okra, bitter gourd and chilli are Gulf countries, Singapore, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Nepal. Non-traditional vegetables are exported to European countries, Australia, Gulf countries and' South-East Asian countries. Cole crops and root vegetables are much in demand in temperate countries during winter. In India, these vegetables are grown in the open during winter and thus the cost of production is less as compared to those grown under protective cover. There is lot of opportunity for exporting these vegetables to the European and North American countries from India. Presently, our share in world export market is very negligible. If we are to make our presence felt in the export market, considerable development is required in infrastructure and export promotional areas.

9

lolanaceons vegetables

Tomato

(Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

G Kalloo, M K Banerjee, R N Tewari and D C Pachauri

Area and production

Tomato is one of the most popular vegetables grown all over the world. In India, tomato has wider coverage in comparison to other vegetables. The leading tomato growing states are Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Haryana, Pun¬ jab and Bihar. The area and production of tomato in our country was about 3.55 lakh hectare and 54.41 lakh tonnes respectively in 1997-98. In the last two decades with the development of high yielding varieties/hybrids, significant progress has been made in tomato production.

Economic importance and use

Tomato universally treated as ‘Protective Food’ is being extensively grown as annual plant all over the world. It is a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and contributes to the nutrition of the consumers. Tomato is a rich source of minerals, vitamins and organic acid (healthy acids). There are vari¬ ous types of flavouring compounds found in the fruits, which enrich the taste. A survey made by M.A. Stens indicated that among the main fruits and vegetables, tomato ranks 16th as a source of both these vitamins. The total sugar content is 2.5% in ripe fruit and amount of ascorbic acid varies from 16-65mg/100g of fruit weight. The total amino acid is 100-350mg/100g of fruit weight. Tomatoes are used directly as raw vegetables in sandwiches, sulud etc. Several processed items like paste, puree, syrup, juice, ketchup, drinks, whole peeled tomato, etc. are pre¬ pared on a large scale. Tomato is a very good appetizer and its soup is said to be a good remedy for patients suffering from constipation.

Export potential

In addition to meeting the local demand, tomato has been identified as a poten¬ tial vegetable for export by the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA). The specific requirements of tomato for ex¬ port in Middle East are round, medium size and red colour, while cherry tomato is preferred for export in European countries. The export quality of tomato

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

producing areas are Nasik and Pune in Maharashtra and Bangalore in Karnataka. Processed products of Tomato especially puree and paste have great demand in export. Tomato i ; exported from India, but due to lack of suitable varieties/hy¬ brids exclusively for exports, our tomatoes do not compete in the foreign market. For encouraging export potential of tomato and its products, there is an urgent need for development of suitable varieties, proper packing procedure and long¬ term and consistent export policy. Pre-cooling units and cold storage for fresh tomato should be established for prolonging the shelf-life and minimizing the losses in post-harvest handling.

CROP IMPROVEMENT

Orgin

Scientific information indicates that the cultivated tomato originated in a wild form in the Peru-Ecuador-Bolvia area of the Andes (South America). The distri¬ bution of the allele studies at the Ge locus (Genetic basis) also gives evidence of the origin of cultivated tomato in the Peru-Ecuador region.

Distribution

Probably from the Peru-Ecuador area tomatoes were distributed to many parts of tropical America. The first known record of tomato is in the year 1554 in South America. After 200 years it gradually spread to other parts of the world. The Ital¬ ians might have been the first European to use tomato. It was introduced in Eu¬ rope in the early 16th Century and spread to the Philippines via' South America to Malaysia by about 1650. It was introduced in west African parts via Portugese traders across the continent from Egypt or the Sudan. Since 1800, tomatoes are being used as food all over the world.

Taxonomy

Tomato is a herbaceous, annual to perennial, prostrate and sexually (occasion¬ ally asexually) propagated plant. Earlier the botanical name of tomato was Solatium lycopersicon, later Miller in 1978 gave the name Lycopersicon esculentum to culti¬ vated tomato and L. pimpinellifolium to the wild forms of tomato. Lycopersicon is a relatively small genus within the extremely large and diverse family Solanaceae having an identical genome formula 2n = 2x = 24.

L. esculentum has five forms, cerasifome; small fruited type or cherry tomato, pyrifomae, pear tomato, commune; common tomato, grandifolium; potato leaf type and validium; upright tomato. Muller (1940) divided the genus lycopersicon into sub-genus Eulycopersicon and Eriopersicon. Eulycopesicon is a red fruited type, whereas Eriopersicon is green- fruited type. Presently, the genus has been recognized as having nine species. These are Lycopersicon esculentum L.

11

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

pimpinellifolium, L. cheesmanii, L. birsutum, L. chemelewskii, L. parviflorum and L. Chinese and L. peruvianum.

Tomato is grown as an annual plant. It has taproot and growth habit of the plant is determinate and indeterminate. In the determinate types, plants are dwarf where growth is restricted with the appearance of terminal flower, while in deter¬ minate plant, growth is continued and there is less initiation of flower and fruit on the stem. The lateral buds always exist to continue vegetative growth.

Breeding methods

Tomato varieties have been developed by introduction, selection and hybridiza¬ tion procedures. A few varieties like Sioux, Marglobe, Keckruth, Best of All, Roma, Keckruth Ageti, La-Bonita, etc. were introduced from America and adopted by growers at several places in the country. Selection has also played an important role in the improvement of tomato. Varieties like Improved Meeruti, HS 110, CO 1 have been developed through selection. However, most of the tomato varieties have been bred by hybridization and pedigree selection method employed in hy¬ bridization. Varieties developed by this method are Pusa Ruby, Pusa Early Dwarf, Punjab Chhuhara, HS 101, HS 102, SEL 7, SEL 18 etc. Mutation breeding was also utilized in developing cultivars like S 12 and CO 3.

Heterosis

It is easy to develop a tomato hybrid with extreme earliness, yield, improved quality, uniformity and adaptability to adverse conditions. Most of the hybrids have been developed by private companies and are being commercialized. In hy¬ brids, it is easy to combine large number of resistance genes than in open polli¬ nated/pure line. There is ample scope of developing resistant hybrids against bi¬ otic and abiotic stresses. In tomato single hybrids are grown commercially. For this purpose two parents having good combining ability are selected and maintained by s el ting.

Hybrid seeds are largely produced by hand emasculation and hand pollination. Seed parent and pollen parents are grown under healthy condition in the ratio of 12 : 1. The flower of seed parents are emasculated 12-15 hours before opening and anthers are removed by forceps and fingernail. Generally, emasculation is done in the afternoon and in the following day morning pollination is done. For pollina¬ tion, freshly collected pollens are used, however, pollen can be stored for 2-3 days under normal conditions and can be used for pollination.

The cost of hybrid seed production can be minimized by use of male sterile line. More than 50 independent loci have been reported to control male sterility in tomato. Male sterile plants can be identified in the population by observing small sized flower, poorly developed anthers, poor or no anther dehiscence and sterile

12

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Pusa Hybrid 1

pollen. For maintaining male sterility, the male sterile plants (msms) are crossed with the heterozygous fertile plants (msms) which results in 50% male fertile and 50% male sterile population. The sterile plants thus obtained are used for hybrid speed production.

Exerted stigma (positional sterlity) controlled by recessive factor can also be used for the production of hybrid. This type of line can be developed utiliz¬ ing wild species especially in L. hirsutum and L.hirsutum f. glabratum.

Description of varieties

A large number of tomato varieties have been evolved by various organizations of the country. These varieties have desirable attributes like earliness, high yield, good fruit size, fruit colour and disease resistance. The details of the varieties are given as under:

Arka Saurabh: This variety was developed in IIHR, Bangalore by selection from variable breeding line V 685 introduced from Canada. Plants are semi-deter¬ minate in growth. Fruits are thick fleshed, firm round, medium large in size,

13

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Pusa Hybrid 4

Pusa Sadabahar

deep-red colour and nipple tipped. Fruits have good transport quality, which is good for both fresh market and processing. The average yield is 30.8 tonnes/ha. It is recommended for cultivation in I, IV, V, VI and VII zone of India under AICVIP.

14

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Pusa Uphar

Arka Vikash: An improved variety developed through selection from a variable population of American variety ‘Tip Top’ introduced at IIHR, Bangalore. Plants are indeterminate, fruits are medium in size with uniform deep red colour. It was recommended in 1987 for cultivation in both hills and plains. This variety does well in moisture- stress conditions and gives an average yield of 30.3 tonnes /ha.

BT 12: This variety was developed by OUAT Bhubaneswar and recommended through AICVIP for cultivation in zone I an IV in 1996. Plants indeterminate in growth habit 75-80cm height. Fruits are thick skinned, round shaped with 2-3 locules. The average yield of this variety is 20—25 tonnes/ha.

CO 3: Plant habit of CO 3 is determinate, which is mutant of variety CO 1 developed at Coimbatore. Plants are erect, thick and main stem has strong primary branches with dark-green foliage. The fruits of CO 3 are round globular in shape and medium in size, bright-red in colour and possess high vitamin C and organic acidity. It was identified in 1987 and recommended for growing in zone I, IV, V, VI and VII of India. The cropping period is 110-115 days and it gives an average yield of 38.1 tonnes/ha.

Pusu Uphur: The variety Pusa Uphar developed at IARI. It is recommended for cultivation in IV and VI zone under AICVIP in 1996. Plants are indeterminate, erect thick stemmed with dark-green foliage. It bears in cluster of 2-3 fruits. Fruits are medium in size, round shaped, deep-red skin colour with thick pericarp. The average yield is 35-40 tonnes/ha and this variety is suitable for processing.

Hisar Anmol: Developed at HAU, Hisar through hybridization of Hisar Arun

15

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

x L. hirsutum f glabratum. This variety is found resistant to leaf curl virus and it is recommended for growing in the areas where the leaf curl virus is a serious prob¬ lem. Plants are determinate and fruits are flattish round, medium in size with red colour.

Hisar Arun (Sel 7): This is an early variety developed at HAU, Hisar through hybridization of Pusa Early Dwarf X K 1 followed by selection. Plants are deter¬ minate having medium height and profuse branching. Fruits of this variety are medium to big in size with 4-6 locules. This variety is very popular as early and main crop in the northern plains. Through AICVIP, this variety was recommended for cultivation in Indian zone I, IV, V, VI and VII.

Hisar Lalit: This variety has been developed through hybridization of HS 101 x Resistant Bangalore at HAU Hisar. It is a semi-de terminate variety, which bears

fruits in medium to large size. Fruits are round in shape. This variety is resistant to root knot nematode.

KS 2: This variety was developed at Kanpur. Its plant has light-green foliage. Fruits are flattish-round, slightly furrowed with 4-5 number of locules. It is a

moderate yielder and has been identified for cultivation under AICVIP in zone I II, IV and VI.

La-Bonita: This variety was recommended for cultivation in I IV V and VII zone under AICVIP in 1987. Plants of this variety are bushy and determinate in growth habit. Fruits are smooth, oblong shaped with yellow stem end. Fruits have thick pericarp and 2-3 locules. It is suitable for long-distance transportation. This variety was developed through selection at NBPGR, New Delhi.

Pant Bahar: Developed at Pantnagar from line AC 238 identified in 1985 through AICVIP for cultivation in I, II, IV and V zone. Plants are bushy and having light- green foliage with relatively thin stem and small leaflets. Fruits become ready for harvest in 78 days. Fruits are flattish-round medium in size, with 5-6 locules, slightly ridged and red in colour. This is resistant to Verticillmm and Fusarium wilt under field conditions and has good storage and processing quality.

Pant T3: Developed at Pantnagar through pure line selection. Plants are semi determinate with thick, round hairy stem. Leaves are medium in size with dark- foliage. Fruits ripen in 60 days, weighing 65-78g round and have smooth surface with uniform red colour of skin. Suitable for processing. Its average yield is 19.2

tonnes/ha. Under AICVIP it has been recommended for cultivation in zone IV V VI and VII.

Punjab Cbbubara: This variety was developed at PAU, Ludhiana through hy¬ bridization of EC 55055 215 x Punjab Tropic. Plants are dwarf, bushy, determi¬ nate growth habit with dense and luxuriant foliage. Fruits are medium sized, pear shaped, firm, fleshy, usually bilocular, less seeded, mild sour, thick pericarp, uni¬ formly red coloured at maturity. This variety is suitable for long-transportation,

16

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

because it retains marketable quality for a week after harvesting under ordinary condition during summer. It is identified for cultivation in I, II, IV, VI and VII of India under AICVIP.

Punjab Kesari : This variety was developed through hybridization followed by pedigree selection at PAU, Ludhiana. It was recommended for cultivation in both plains and hills in 1987. Plants are determinate, bushy and early maturing. This variety is moderately susceptible to late blight and fruit borer and susceptible to root knot nematode. The average yield of this variety is 28.6 tonnes/ha.

Pusa Early Dwarf: It was developed at NBPGR, New Delhi through hybridiza¬ tion of Improved Meeruti x Red Cloud. Plants having determinate growth habit are typical dwarf with compact fruiting. Fruits are slightly flattish in shape, me¬ dium large in size, uniform red, ribbed, obscure furrow with 5-6 locules. It is suitable for rainy season in northern plains and March sowing in hills. Under AICVIP, it was recommended for cultivation in I, IV and VII zone.

Pusa Ruby : A very popular variety, developed at IARI, New Delhi through hybridization of Sioux x Improved Meeruti. Plants are indeterminate, spreading, less branched, hardy, with a height of 80-85cm. Fruits are flattish-round, small to medium sized, uniform red, slightly lobed (4—5 locules) and mild acidic. This is an early variety having 25-30 fruits per plant.

Pusa Sheetal: Pusa Sheetal variety was developed at IARI, New Delhi through hybridization of two low temperature fruiting introduction, Balka (introduced from Bulgaria) x Jemnoroshnese (introduced from USSR). It possesses determinate growth habit. Fruits are flattish-round in shape, uniform red coloured. It is suit¬ able for growing as early crop in northern plains because of its fruit setting at low temperature (8°C or low). The average yield is 36.3 tonnes/ha.

Roma : This is an introduction from America. Its fruits are small, pear-shaped having deep-red colour. Plants are small with determinate growth habit. Crops become ready for harvesting in 90-95 days after transplanting. Due to thick skin of the fruit, it is suitable for distant market. It gives an average yield of 25-31 tonnes/ha.

Sel 120: This is a semi-determinate variety developed at IARI, New Delhi. Plants are having dark-green foliage, and fruits are round to flattish-round, attractive, medium to large sized, uniform red in colour, mild acidic and less seeded. It is a nematode resistant variety, suitable for summer and winter production in zone I, IV, VI and VIII under AICVIP.

Sel 32: This variety was developed at HAU, Hisar and recommended for grow¬ ing in II, VI and VII zone under AICVIP in 1996. Plants are determinate and fruits are flattish round, big sized and red coloured. The average yield is 30-35 tonnes /ha. This variety is susceptible to leaf curl virus diseases.

VC 48-1: This is a bacterial wilt resistant variety, developed at Assam Agncul-

17

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

tural University, Jorhat from an introduction of Asian Vegetable Research and Development Centre, Taiwan. Plants having determinate^ growth habit of 80-90cm height are very vigorous and possess good foliage. It has been recommended for growing in those areas where bacterial wilt problem exists.

Breeding for biotic stress

Resistance sources against important diseases, namely Fusanum wilt, Bacterial wilt, late and early blight, leaf curl, TMV and spotted wilt virus and root knot nematodes were located for developing resistant lines. Some of the resistant varie¬ ties which were observed effective were identified at different locations and are given below:

Varieties resistant to biotic stresses

Variety	Source	Pests
Pusa 1 20	IARI	Root knot nematode
Hissar Lalit	Hissar	Root knot nematode
BT 1	Bhubaneswar	Bacterial wilt resistant
BT 10	Bhubaneswar	Bacterial wilt resistant
BWR 5	IIHR	Bacterial wilt resistant
LE 79 5	Kerala	Bacterial wilt resistant
H 24	Varanasi	Leaf curl virus resistant
Pant Bahar	Pantnagar	Verticillium wilt and Fusarium wilt resistant
BT 18	Bhubaneswar	Bact wilt resistant
BT 21	Bhubaneswar	Bact wilt resistant

Improved varieties and F, hybrids

Many varieties have been recommended from various institutes and state de¬ partments from time to time. These varieties were evaluated at different agroclimatic zones in the country for their suitability under All-India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Programme. On the basis of superior performance following varie¬ ties were identified for different zones and have been recommended by Central and State Variety Release Committees.

Climate and soil

Tomato is a warm season crop. It thrives in temperatures between 1°-30°C and is neither tolerant to frost, nor to waterlogged condition. The optimum range of temperature is 20°-24°C, mean temperature below 16°C and above 27°C are not desirable. Lycopene, which is responsible for red colour, is highest at 21°-24°C while the production of this pigment drops off rapidly above 27°C. Soil which is well drained, fairly fertile, rich in organic matter with a fair water-holding capacity is ideal. For early crop, a sandy loam soil is the best, however, for higher yield

18

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Table 1 . Vegetable varieties released on All-India basis

Variety

Pusa Ruby Pusa Early Dwarf Pusa Gaurav Pusa 1 20 Pusa Sheetal* Pusa Uphar Pusa Sadabahar Sioux Roma S 12

Punjab Chhuhera

Sel 1 -6-4

HS 101

Sel 7

Sel 32

Labonita

T 1

KS 2

KS 17

Pant Bahar

Pant T 3

Arka Vikas

Arka Saurabh

CO 3

Source

IARI

IARI (Katrain)

PAU, Ludhiana PAU, Ludhiana PAU, Ludhiana HAU, Hissar HAU, Hissar HAU, Hissar NBPCR

CSAUT, Kalyanpur CSAUT, Kalyanpur CSAUT, Kalyanpur CBPUAT, Pantnagar CBPLJAT, Pantnagar IIHR, Bangalore IIHR, Bangalore Coimbatore

Zones identified

2, 4, 6, 7, 8

1.4, 6

1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8

1, 4, 6, 7, 8 North Indian plains 4,6

North Indian plains

2, 4, 6, 7 Hilly areas 1, 2, 4, 7, 8

1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 2

1.2.4, 6, 8

1. 4, 5, 7, 8

2, 6, 7

1.4, 5,7

1. 2.4, 7, 8

1.2.4, 6 4

1, 2, 4, 5 1,2, 4, 6, 7,8 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7

1.4, 5, 6, 7, 8

1, 4, 5, 6, 7

A. Tomato Ft hybrids identified / released

n. i umaiu ■ i iuj Hybrids	Source	Zones
ARTH 3	Ankur Seed	1, 7, 8
ARTH4	Ankur Seed	4,8
MTH 6	MAHYCO	7,8
Arka Vardan	IIHR	1,4, 7
FMH 1	IIHR	4
NA 501	Nath Seed	4, 7
NA 601	Nath Seed	6,7
BSS 20	Beejo Sheetal	4, 6, 7
Kt 4	IARI, Katrain	4
Pusa Hybrid 2	IARI	1,4, 6,7
Pusa Hybrid 4	IARI	7
Pusa Hybrid 1	IARI	4, 6
Avinash 2	Sandoz	VI
Hoe 303	Sandoz	IV
Sun 496	Sungrow	II, IV, VIII

heavy soils rich in organic matter are preferred. Tomato performs well in soil having pH 6.0-7.0. It is moderately tolerant to acid soil (pH 5.5).

19

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

A. Tomato varieties suitable for different purposes

Varities for fresh market Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Ruby, Pusa 1 20, T 1 , KS 2,

Pant T 3, Arka Vikas, Arka Saurabh, CO 3, BT 1 2, Punjab Kesari, Sel 6, Sel 7, Sel 32, Pantbahar Varieites for long distance transport All F, hybrids, Pusa-Gaurav, Roma, Punjab

Chhuhera, Pusa Uphar, Labonita

Varieties for processing Pusa Gaurav, Pusa Hybrid 2, Roma, Punjab

Chhuhara, Pusa Uphar, Arka Saurabh

Varieties resistant to abiotic stresses Pusa Sheetal (IARI) — Low temperature regime Pusa

Hybrid 1 (IARI) — High temperature regime Pusa Sadabahar (IARI) — High and low temperature _ regime

Cropping systems

Tomato is well fitted in different cropping systems which include cereals, grains, pulses, and oil seeds. Cauliflower-tomato-okra, sunflower-cabbage-tomato, maize- tomato-watermelon and paddy-peas-tomato were found remunerative under vaned weather conditions around Bangalore. Other cropping systems like rice-tomato, rice-maize, okra-potato-tomato, tomato-onion are also popular in several parts of the country. Under sequential intercropping system palak or radish can be grown as intercrop in tomato successfully, which gives maximum profit over tomato alone.

Preparation of field

Land should be prepared well to make the soil suitable for transplanting of tomato. The field is first ploughed with soil turning plough followed by 4-5 plough¬ ing with country plough or harrow. Levelling should be done after ploughing. At the time of soil preparation, raising the planting bed above ground level facilitates drainage during rainy season and if this practice is followed during winter season, it enhances plant growth by conserving the soil heat.

Nursery raising

A net area of about 225m- may be required to raise the seedling for one hectare land. Generally the nursery beds are prepared in the size of 7.5m long, 1.00m width and 10-1 5cm height. Well decomposed farmyard manure is properly mixed into top soil of the bed at rate of about 3kg/mf. A fertilizer mixture of 0.5kg NPK of 15 : 15 : 15 per bed is mixed in the soil at least 10 days before sowing the seeds. Normally 400-500g and 125—1 7 5g seeds for open pollinated and hybrid respec¬ tively are required for the planting of one hectare land. For raising good and healthy seedlings, treatment of the seeds with fungicide like Captan or Cereson or Thiaram @2§/kg seed is essential. Similarly, the seed beds are also treated with steam or Vz litre of 40% formalin/ m2 soil. Soon after fumigation the beds are covered with

20

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

polythene for 24 hours. If the fumigation is not done in the nursery bed, solanzation should be done to minimize the attack of insect pests and diseases. For solarization, cover the nursery bed with a transparent, plastic sheet during the day hours for 10 days. If beds are not sterilized, drench with 0.2% Brassicol or Captan. The seeds are sown in bed either broadcast or in row, at a distance of 7.5cm between the rows. After the sowing, the rows are covered wnh a thin layer of the compost. Thereafter, the beds are irrigated with a rose can. Light watering is required daily in evening. Nowadays the nurseries are being raised in low tunnel and low-cost polyhouse. Use of transparent plastic sheet as low tunnel provides an ideal condi¬ tion for successful raising of seedlings than the conventional method. The utility of low-cost polyhouse for raising of seedling in winter months facilitates trans¬ planting in short time for spring planting in plains. The use of agronets protects the seedlings from insect and reduces the vector borne viruses infestation and damage by other insects. The beds are covered with straw or polythene sheet until the seed germinate. Every week, if required a fungicide such as Dithane M 45 or Difolation 0.25% should be sprayed to reduce the post-emergence damping off.

Transplanting

The seedlings are ready for transplandng between 4—5 weeks after seeding in nursery beds. Seedlings should be hardened before transplanting them. This is done by withholding watering for 4-5 days so as to reduce the available moisture to 20%. Hardening can also be achieved by adding 4000 ppm NaCl to the irriga¬ tion water or with spray of 2000ppm cycocel + ZnS04 (0.25%) + 25pm proline at transplanting. The tomato seedlings are transplanted on flat beds or on the side of ridges. In the initial stage, seedlings are transplanted at the side of the ridge and later earthing up is done to keep plant in the middle of the ridge. In Punjab, mainly spring crop is raised and for this transplandng is done in November-December. The seedlings are then covered with polythene bags (15 x 10cm) to protect the plants from frost.

In tomato, plant spacing is decided on the basis of the growth habit of the variety and purpose such as fresh marketing or processing. The closer the spacing, the higher is the yield but this reduces fruit quality. There is especially re¬ duction in size and more incidence of insect pests and diseases. In closer spacing the number of trusses is increased but the number of fruits per truss is decreased. Increased plant density increases the early and total yield. Different spacing are followed such as 60cm x 45cm, 75cm x 60cm and 75cm x 75cm on flat and raised beds. For winter season planting of tomato in northern plains on raised bed of 80-90cm wide followed by irrigation channel can be prepared through tractor and on this raised bed both sides planting may be done at an interval 30-45cm. This method economizes watering, reduces weed growth and is very much beneficial

21

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

for early establishment of the plant. A plant population 35,000/ha is considered to be optimum producing fruit yield of 40 tonnes/ha.

Nutrient requirement and management

The quantity of nutrient applied in the field depends upon several factors such as cultivar, soil and growing condition, irrigation and season etc. In tomato, NPK are required in relatively large amount, while most of other nutrients are needed in only small amount. Adequate supply of nitrogen increases fruit quality, fruit size, keeping quality, colour and taste. Acidity is also increases by excess nitrogen. High level of phosphorus throughout root region is essential for rapid root development and for better utilization of water and other nutrients. Phosphorus has pronounced effect on increasing number of flowers. Adequate amount of potassium is also required for growth, yield and quality. Recommended dose of fertilizers for differ¬ ent regions is given in Table 2.

Table 2. Recommended dose of farmyard manure and NPK for tomato production under different regions

Place	Soil	N (kg/ha)	P (kg/ha)	K (kg/ha)	Farmyard manure (tonnes/ha)
New Delhi	Sandy loam	60	60	0	25
Coimbatore	Medium black	100	80	50	25
Bangalore	Sandy clay loam	115	104	64	—
Chaubatia	Hilly	100	90	—	—
(Uttar Pradesh)

For successful crop, application of about 20 tonne farmyard manure, 90-100kg

N, 60-70kg P20. and 50-60kg K20/ha is required. One third of nitrogen and the entire dose of phosphorus and potash should be applied before transplanting. The remaining dose of N should be applied in equal doses, i.e. 25-30 and 45-50 days after transplanting. Foliar application of nutrient has been found beneficial. Appli¬ cation of urea as foliar spray (1.25%) gave better plant growth, fruit yield and quality. The application of 120kg N and 60 kg P205/ha in the form of half soil and half foliar method, significantly increased the total fruit yield in comparison with the basal application. It was further reported that 125kg N/ha and 120kg P,05/ha applied 3Ath in soil and 14th as foliar application gave the maximum yield. The application of micronutrients like Zn, Cu and B significantly increased the number of fruits per plant, yield and quality. Application of 20-30kg/ha of borax and

O. 5%Zn is beneficial for yield and good quality of fruit.

Tomato plants require adequate moisture throughout their growth period. First irrigation is required soon after transplanting. Too much water at the time of trans¬ planting and before the first fruit set have been found detrimental causing blossoms

22

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

off. When the plants are small, frequent watering is necessary in the root zone. Irrigate the crops at an interval of 3-4 days during summer and 10-15 days during winter to maintain the soil moderately wet. During winter, the plants are not irri¬ gated at the time of ripening of fruit. A long spell of drought followed by sudden heavy irrigation may cause cracking of the fruits. Furrow irrigation is most widely used to irrigate tomato crop in India. Drip irrigation of tomato increases the yield as compared to furrow method and suppresses the weed growth. Sprinkler irriga¬ tion is also being popularized nowadays for irrigation of tomato crop, which is more economical. Maintenance of optimum moisture supply of tomato is also important to avoid disease incidence. Irrigation following a period of moisture- stress during fruit development leads to blossom end rot. Frequent irrigation at 12-15 days interval reduced the incidence of tomato wilt as compared to irrigation at 6-12 days.

The normal weed control method followed by farmers in tomato is to give two hand hoeing in the first and third fortnight after transplanting and an earthing up operation during the second fortnight. The application of herbicide is economical. Pre-emergence application of herbicides like Metribuzin at 0.35kg/ha, Fluchloralin 1.25kg/ha has been found to increase the yield significantly over the hand weed¬ ing. Recently the use of pendimethalin @1.0kg/ha as pre-emergence application + one hand weeding at 45 days after transplanting was found very effective in sup¬ pressing the weed and it exhibited least phytotoxic effect with the mean survival of 85% tomato seedlings.

The following weedicides have been recommended by PDVR Varanasi for tomato:

Weedicide	Time of application	Doses (kg a.i.)
Oxyfluoren	Pre-plant incorporation	0.25
Metribuzin	Pre-plant incorporation	0.75
Metribuzin	Post-emergence	0.50
Fluchloralin	Pre-plant incorporation	1 .0

Use of plant growth regulators

Use of plant growth regulator in tomato has been found beneficial for yield, quality, earliness, cold and high temperature fruit setting and to develop resistance to TLCV. Seed treatment with B-naphthoxy-acetic acid (BNOA) at 25-50ppm, Gibberellic acid (GAj) at 5-20ppm and Chlorophenoxy acetic acid at 10-20ppm were reported to improve in growth and yield of tomato. Seedlings soaked for 24 hours in NAA at O.lppm showed higher fruit set and increased early and total yield. Foliar application of GA3 at lOppm, NAA l,000ppm, PCPA at 50ppm 2, 4- D at 0.5ppm or cytozyme at 1.25% were reported to increase in fruit yield. Spray-

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TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Chemicals	Common name	Doses (mg/litre)	Effective
2, Chloroethyl	Ethephen	200-500 whole	Flowering induction, better
phospionie acid		plant spray	rooting and setting of plants
2, Chloroethyl	Cycocel	500-1000	Flower bud, stimulate pigment formation, increase fruit set
2, 4 dichloro/	2, 4-D	2-5 seed treatment,	Increase fruit set earliness,
phenoxy acetic acid		whole plant spray	parthenocarpy
3 Indole butyric acid	1 BA	50-1 00	Increase fruit set
3 Indole acetic acid Napthalene acetic acid	1 AA NAA	Foliage spray	fruit size and yield
Parach lorophenoxy acetic acid	PCPA	50 foliar spary	fruit set under adverse climatic condition
6-4, Inhydroxy methyl 8 methyl gibberline	GA	50-100 foliar spray	Elongate shoot growth

ing of PCPA at 50ppm, IAA 50ppm or borax 1% gave better fruit set in summer. The foliar application of PCPA 50-100ppm at the flowering stage increases the fruit set at low and high temperatures. Spraying is effective in determinate varieties having high degree of synchronization in flowering. The spraying at flower cluster is more useful, since the growth of the plant is not affected adversely.

Growth regulators activate the root growth, increase fruit set and yield. They also affect the physiological process hasten maturity and better quality fruits. Vari¬ ous growth substances recommended for various purpose are summarized in the table.

Mulches are used to reduce or increase the temperature, suppress weed growth and conserves soil-moisture. Organic mulches like straw can reduce the soil tem¬ perature during summer season, however, plastics are used to increase the soil temperature during winter season for maintaining the optimum temperature which is required for good growth, flowering, fruiting and quality of tomato.

Pruning and training is generally followed in indeterminate tomatoes. Pruning besides removing the unwanted growth of plants, improves the size, shape and other qualities of the fruits. Pruning also breaks the apical dominance, eliminates the crown set and enhances the plant vigour. Apart from pruning in indeterminate tomato, early and total yield and quality are increased to a greater extent by train¬ ing. The plants are trained with wires, strings or stacks.

Tomato is a climacteric fruit, although some ripening mutants are non climac¬ teric. During ripening, colour, flavour, aroma, texture and composition of tomato fruits change at very fast rate. The start of maturation and ripening results in the production of ethylene and CO,. Ethylene has a remarkable effect on the detached fruits, which is conditioned by temperature and treatments. Ethrel treatments of

24

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

harvested fruits enhance the ripening. In order to enhance the ripening of fruits, ethrel (l,000ppm) can be sprayed on the plants at the time of initiation of ripening. An early spray may damage the foliage and reduce the size of fruits.

Harvesting and yield

In indeterminate cultivars, fruits can normally be harvested 70-100 days after planting. While determinate cultivar may begin fruit at 70 days depending on the environmental condition. Fruit harvesting should be at the right stage, which de¬ pends upon the purpose of fruit utilization. Immature green state, mature green, turn pink or half ripe, red ripe or over ripe. Fruits are normally picked at an inter¬ val of 4-5 days in summer whereas for winter crop picking should be at weekly interval. Tomatoes should not be pulled from vines but should be picked with a twisting motion of hand to separate fruits from the stem. The yield varies grately according to varieties and seasons. On an average, yield of open pollinated varie¬ ties ranges from 20-25 tonnes/ha. Hybrid varieties may yield up to 50 tonnes/ha or more under normal conditions.

Maturity standards and post-harvest management

Optimum maturity of the tomato depends upon the marketing and other process¬ ing purpose. The maturity stage of tomato fruits is classified by USDA as: mature green, breaker, turning, pink, light-red and red. Red-ripe tomatoes are preferred for local market and processing use and fruits at the fully matured green, turning red and pink are preferred for long-distance market and storage. T\omato is graded for specialized city markets, however, grading is also in vogue in local markets. The Bureau of Indian Standards has specified four grades, viz Super A, Super, Fancy and Commercial.

Storage and marketing

Tomatoes can be stored in low temperature and evaporative cool storage. In India tomatoes are not commercially stored in cold storage. Pre-cooling of tomato after harvest and prior to storage and transportation are reported to prolong their storage-life. Tomato fruits at mature green stage could be stored successfully at 12°-13°C in polythene bags of 100 gauze thickness for 4-5 weeks. Storage-life of tomatoes could be increased by keeping in evaporative cool storage (zero energy cool chamber). It is found that tomato at breaker stage stored in zero energy cool chamber during summer extended shelf-life by 4—5 days. The cool chamber has been found effective in maintaining fruit acceptability for longer period and mini¬ mizing weight loss considerably.

Usually bamboo basket and wooden boxes of various size and shapes are used for packing of tomatoes. Wooden boxes are generally used for packing for long

25

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

distance markets. Use of polythene for pre-packaging of tomatoes could reduce the physiological losses in weight and increases the shelf-life.

PLANT PROTECTION

Tomato crop is prone to many diseases. Some of the most important diseases which are found in India are presented below:

Bacterial diseases

Bacterial wilt : Caused by Pseudomonas solanacerum (El Sm). Most serious dis¬ ease in tropical as well as temperate regions. Lower leaves may drop before wilting, plants are stunted with yellow leaves. Pith of root is dark-brown to black in colour and water soaked. The disease is soil inhibitant. Use of resistant varieties, crop rotation and application of oil cakes, neem cakes coconut pith are the control measures for controlling the diseases.

Fungal diseases

Damping off and root rot: This disease is caused by Pythium ultimum Rhizoctoma solam, Phytophthora parasitica. It leads to pre-emergence damping off which consists of killing of seedlings from initial stages of seed germination to the emergence above soil. Post-emergence consists of rapid shrinking and darkening of cortical tissue of the hypocotyl.

Seed treatment with Cerasan of Copper oxychloride @ 2g/kg and spraying of seedlings with Captan or Phytolon are effective in controlling post-emergence damping off. The disease is more serious when excess of water is supplied and temperature is high.

Late blight: This disease is caused by Phytophthera infestans (Mont) Disease occurs on the foliage at any stage of growth. Brown to purple black lesions occur in the leaflet, petiole, fruit and stem. At later stage plants die. The disease appears at low temperature and high humidity. For controlling the disease, crop is not planted near potato. Use of resistant variety is the effective control. Application of Zineb and Diathane Z 78 are effective at early stage.

Fusarium wilt: This disease is caused by Fusanum oxysporum lycopersci (Snyder and Horsen). This disease is common in warm humid climate and is temperature dependent. Optimum temperature of 28°C is suitable for fungi growth. Fungus is a soil inhabitant. Symptoms consist of clearing of vein let, dropping of petiole, in field yellowing of lower leaves lead to death of plant at later stage. Browning of' vascular bundles is also common at later stage. Crop rotation, use of resistant varieties is sure and effective control.

Early blight: This disease is caused by Altemaria solam (Jones and Grant) fungus is a soil-borne. Circular angular dark-brown spots appear on leaves stem and fruit.

26

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Concentric circles of 2-5mm in diameter are formed at advance stage. Fruits are also affected showing sunken large dark-brown leathery spots on green and round fruits. Seed treatment in hot water at 52-55°C and spray of Diathane Z 78 or M 45 and Zineb are helpful in controlling the disease.

Virus diseases

Tobacco Mosaic virus: This disease cause mild mottling of foliage. Sometimes leaf blade is reduced to fern like appearance. Yellow chlorosis is more prominent fruits are also distorted. This disease spreads through debris of infected plants through soil and mechanical means. This disease can be controlled by use of resist¬ ant varieties, proper sanitation and avoiding contact by smokers.

Leaf curl virus: This disease is more serious during autumn crop. The disease is characterized by curling of leaves, reduction in leaf size, excessive branching and stunted plant growth. The virus spreads through a vector white fly ( Bemisia tabaci). The disease can be checked by control of whitefly by sprays of insecticide like Rogor and Dimacron 8-10 days interval.

PEST

Tomato fruit worm (Borer) (Heliotbis armigera ): Moths are brown to yellow¬ ish-brown in colour. Caterpillar are green in colour they attack during October- March. They roll over the leaves and find their way to the fruits where they cut holes. Pest is controlled by picking the fruits and spraying of contact insecticides

like Carbaryl 0.2% and Inchlorophos 0.25%.

Jassids (Empoasca devestan ): Jassids suck the sap from the leaves causing curl¬ ing of leaves. Sprays of Endrin, Parathon are effective in controlling.

whitefly (Bemisia tabaci ): They are minute white pigmented insects suck sap of plants. Control measures are discussed in leaf-curl disease control.

Nematodes

Three species Meloidogyne incognita, Melodogyne arenana and Meloidogyne javanica are common in tomato. Symptoms consist of foliage discolouration to pale than normal unthrifty development, dwarfness and wilting. The disease can be controlled by use of resistant varieties, namely P 120, Nematax, Anahu, Atkisen, VNF 8. Several methods like use of Dichloropropan di chloropropane mixture (DD) and Dimethoate are recommended.

DISORDERS

Blossom end rot: Watersoaked spots appear at the point of attachment and en¬ large rapidly. This disease occurs due to reduced soil-moisture especially at fruit

27

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Plant protection calender

Disease/pest	Fungicides/insecticides	Doses
Late blight	Mancozeb 0.2% Copper oxychloride 0.3% Captafol 0.2%	4 sprays 15 days interval 3 sprays 1 5 days interval 3 sprays 1 5 days interval
Early blight	Mancozeb 0.25% Captafol 0.2% Zineb 0.2%	3 sprays 1 5 days interval 3 sprays 1 5 days interval 3 sprays 1 5 days interval
Buck eye rot	Chlorothalonil 0.2% Captafol 0.3%	2 sprays 1 5 days interval 3 sprays 1 5 days interval
Tomato spotted Wilt virus fruit borers	Carbofuran 1.25kg a.iTha Two sprays at flowering with fenvalerate or cypermethrin @ 30g a.iVha or delamethrin lOg a.i./ha followed by one spray of quinalphos or mono- crotophos or trizophos @500g a.i./ha	Soil

development stage. This disease also occurs due to calcium deficiency. Any cul¬ tural practices which conserve soil-moisture and spraying of calcium help in con¬ trolling the disease.

Cracking: Radial cracking is more damaging as compared to concentric crack¬ ing. Genetical factors as well as environmental factors are responsible for cracking. Use of resistant varieties like Sioux, Manulucie and picking of fruit before full ripening reduces the incidence of cracking.

SEED PRODUCTION

For seed production, it is essential to produce a healthy crop and plant should be true-to-type. It is essential to maintain isolation distance of 50-100m with other varieties. Agronomic practices are same as for vegetable purpose. Crop should be inspected, the off-type and diseased plants are removed. Natural cross pollination was 3.84% in alternate rows of 60cms and 1.74% in 240cm distance in autumn crop. The cross pollination reduces during summer months.

Seed extraction: Ripe fruits are crushed in non metalic box by hand. No fruit juice should be allowed to drain out. Entire mass is kept for 24-72hrs depending upon high and low temperature. Seed will settle down at bottom. Remove fer¬ mented mass and clean the seed 8-10 times in clean water then dned in shade.

Alkali treatment: Fruit cut into halves and scoop out slimy mass containing seed. Treat with 300g washing soda in 4 litre of boiling water in equal volume. When mixture is cooled down allow to stand overnight. Next day seeds are washed throughly.

Acid treatment method: Slimy mass treated with hydrochloric acid @ 75ml per

28

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

12kg of mass. Seeds are separated 15-30 minutes. Acidified liquid is removed and seed is separated. In this method seed germination is affected.

Brinjal

( Solatium melongena L.)

Narendra Singh and T S Kalda

Brinjal, eggplant or aubergine (. Solarium melongena L.) is one of the most commonly grown vegetable crops in India. It is adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions. It has a long bearing period when grown under mild climate of southern states but its bearing is shortened under hot summer and cold winter seasons of Sutlej-Ganga Alluvial plains of northern India. In hilly regions, it is grown only in summer. A large number of cultivars are grown in the country depending on regional preferences for colour, size and shape of the fruits.

Table 1 . Area production and productivity of brinjal for the year 1 995-96

State/UT's

Area

(ha)

Production (metric tonnes)

Productivity

(metric tonnes/ha)

Andhra Pradesh	18,897
Arunchal Pradesh	560
Assam	12,515
Bihar	68,209
Delhi	1,214
Gujarat	24,450
Haryana	3,950
Himachal Pradesh	265
Jammu and Kashmir	460
Karnataka	26,050
Madhya Pradesh	19,760
Maharashtra	24,742
Manipur	165
Meghalaya	125
Mizoram	695
Nagaland	181
Orissa	1,36,578
Punjab	1,800
Rajasthan	5,461
Tamil Nadu	8,836
Uttar Pradesh (Hills)	1,862
Uttar Pradesh (Plains)	7,829
West Bengal	69,000
Andaman and Nicobar	310
Daman and Diu	8
Pondicherry	280
Total	4,34,202

3,77,940	20.00
1,960	3.50
18,87,725	15.00
13,64,180	20.00
13,961	11.50
2,95,908	12.10
69,900	17.70
4,532	17.10
4,600	10.00
7,03,350	27.00
1,97,000	9.97
3,89,388	15.74
828	5.02
1,040	8.32
2,755	3.96
2,262	12.50
17,29,140	12.66
26,600	14.78
17,750	3.25
1,15,300	13.05
9,388	5.04
2,32,978	29.76
6,90,000	10.00
217	-
160	20.00
4,200	15.00
64,43,062	14.84

UT, Union territories

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TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Distribution, area and production

In addition to India, other major bnnjal producing countries are China, Turkey, Japan, Egypt, Italy, Indonesia, Iraq, Syria, Spain and Phillipines. India contributes 6,44,3062mt to the global production of bnnjal and ranks second to China. Bnnjal covers 8.14 /o of total vegetable area and produces 9% of total vegetable production in India.

In India it is well distributed in Onssa, Bihar, Karnataka, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh. The total area, production and productivity/ha as given in the Yearbook of National Horticultural Board, New Delhi is presented in Table 1.

Food value and uses

Brinjal fruits are a fairly good source of calcium, phosphorus, iron and vitamins particularly B group. Analysis of edible parts of fruit (except stalk and calyx) gave the following values (per lOOg fresh weight): moisture, 92.7g; protein, 1.4g; fat, 0.3g; minerals, 0.3g; fibre, 1.3g; carbohydrates, 4.0g. The mineral constituents per lOOg edible portion are: Ca, 18mg; Mg, 16mg; 0, 47mg riboflavin (phytin P 3mg); Fe, 0.9 mg (lomsable Fe, 0.8mg); Na, 3mg; Cu, 0.17mg; S, 44mg; Cl, 52mg and Mn’ 2.4mg. A small quantity of iodine (7 microg/kg) is also present. The vitamins present are vit. A, 124 iu; Thiamin (B,), 0.4mg; riboflavin (B2), O.llmg, nicotinic 1963 °-9mg; vit- Q12mgl choline, 52mg/100g of edible portion (Aykroid,

Some reports suggest that vitamin C content of the fruits varies according to varieties. A value of 24.2mg/100g vitamin C has also been reported but most of the values are found within 4-12mg/100g. Leaves contain more vitamin C 38-104.70mg/100g) than that of the fruits. Pigmented, dark-purple brinjal has more vitamin C than those with white skin. Vitamin C content of brinjal is affected by canning. Toasting of fruits raises the nicotinic acid at the expense of tngonellin

which is present in it and 66-69% of it is converted into nicotinic acid during toasting.

Bnnjal is reported to stimulate the intrapeptic metabolism of blood cholesterol. Leaf and fruit, fresh or dry produce marked drop in blood cholesterol level. The de-cholestrolizing action is attributed to the presence of poly-unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and lenolenic) which are present in flesh and seeds of the fruit in higher amount (65.1%). The presence of magnesium and potassium salts also helps in de-cholestrolizing action. Aqueous extracts of fruit inhibit choline esterase activity of human plasma. Dry fruit is reported to contain goitrogenic principles.

Botany

Brinjal belongs to family Solanaceae. The plant is erect, semi-erect or prostate, herbaceous and branched in nature which is about one meter or lower in height. It

30

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

is wooly or scurfy, spiny or non-spiny with or without pigmentation which is mainly anthocyanin. Leaves are opposite or sub-opposite, large, ovate or oblongish-ovate, shallowly sinnate-lobbed, glabrous or nearly glabrous above, bit densely tomentose beneath. Normal flower is pentamerous and hermaphrodite, solitary or in 2-7 flowered cyme. Calyx is wooly or non-wooly, spiny or non-spiny, persistent and accrescent. Carolla is lobed, spreading with different shades or purple to light- pink or white. Stamens free, erect, yellow with short filaments, flat at the base, long, narrow anthers forming a loose cone which surround the style. Each anther opens into two terminal pores, come out of which, the mature pollen grains at the time of anthesis. Ovary is two locular with multi-ovules. Heterostyly is common feature in multi-flower cymes except in bunchy type cultivars. Fruit is a berry showing a great variety in colour, size and shape. Fruit colour may be nearly black, different shades of purple of violet-purple, white or uniformly-green, variegated-green or variegated-purple. On maturity, at the Time of ripening of seeds, the fruit becomes brown or yellow to bright-orange. Fruit shape may be long, oblong, oval, round, obvoid, ellipsoid, eggshaped, spherical, cylindrical or elongated. Fruits are small to large in size.

Flowering, pollination and fruit setting

Brinjal is a self-pollinated crop but cross-pollination also occurs in it. This is because it has pronounced heterostyly which favours cross-pollination. Sixty to seventy per cent fruit setting happens through pollination by insects while 30- 40% is by selling. Bumble bees ( Bombus species) and honey bees (Apis species ) are the insects which do most of the pollination. The lack of suitable pollinators favours selfing in this crop. The pollinating role of another bee species, Exomalopsis biliottii, has been noted in Solanaceous crops, specially in brinjal. To encourage pollination and visit of these bees, Mimosa pudica plants should be planted in vicinity of brinjal.

Brinjal is a day-neutral plant. Fruit setting is affected neither by natural light duration nor by relative humidity but mainly by the average maximum temperature (21-27°C) and precipitation during the first five days after flower opening. The effects of maximum temperature and precipitation on fruit-setting are separate to each other and are governed by additive factors. The flower formation or flowering in this crop is affected by nutritional factors. The fertility level of soil seems to cause a great difference in flower initiation and development than it does in those plants which respond to photoperiod and vernalization. The optimum temperature for normal growth and development of plant and fruits is 21-30°C or below, above this the growth stops completely. The optimum temperature for seed germination is 20-25°C with 50% and above relative humidity.

Opening of flowers and dehiscence of anthers normally go together. Generally,

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TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

opening of flowers takes place at 6-7:30hr in summer which is delayed to 11:1 5hr in winter at Delhi. High temperature and high humidity in the morning hours hasten the opening of flowers and dehiscence of anthers. At Bangalore the maximum anthesis occurs at 6-7hr. After 8hr there is decline in anthesis in most of the cultivars until 12 noon.

Brinjal flowers are divided into four types, namely (i) long styled, (ii) medium styled, (iii) pseudo-short styled and (iv) short styled. The difference in position of stigma from anther tips in these four types was due to the length of style. The maximum fruit setting in different cultivars was in long styled flowers which ranged from 70-86.7%. In medium styled it ranged between 12.5 and 55.6%. There is no fruit setting in pesudo-short and short-styled flowers.

Taxonomy

Brinjal ( Solarium melongena L.) belongs to the family Solanaceae. All the present day cultivars belong to three varieties of equal rank of the species. These varieties are (a) esculentum, which includes round and egg-shaped cultivars; (b) serpentinum has long, slender types and (c) depressum includes all early and dwarf brinjal cultivars.

Singh (1972) cited four main botanical varieties, namely (1) Solanum melongena var. incanum (Linn.) Kuntze (Syn. S. incanum Linn., S. coagulans (Forsk); (2) S. melongena var. melongena (Syn. S. melongena var. esculenta Nees); (3) S. melongena var. depressum Bailey; and (4) S. melongena var. serpentinum (Desf.) Bailey (Syn. S. serpentinum Desf.).

Filov (1940) classified both cultivated and wild forms of brinjal on agro-ecological basis. He grouped them into five sub-species and stated that the wild forms are mostly found in India. The five sub-species are: (i) agrestis, it includes those forms which bear extremely bitter and inedible fruits; (ii) occidental, includes such forms which arose in western Asia minor under conditions of adequate humidity and high temperature; (iii) onentale-asiaticus, which had its origin in Japan and to some extent in China; (iv) palestmicum, a hydrophytic type which is adapted to withstand high temperature; and (v) arabico ■ italicum, has bitter fruits and is only of ornamental value.

Crossability of species

In fact, Solanum is a very large genus. It includes both tuberous and non-tuberous group of species. The chromosome number of many species under non-tuberous group is fairly stable as 2n=2x=24. There are 38 Asian species which include 22 Indian species. These are morphologically classified into two natural groups. It is said that the groups do not cross with the other which is not true. Among the Indian species, Solanum melongena L. is economically important and is included in the prickly group. Other species which are morphologically related to it are S.

32

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

incanum L; 5. xanthocarpum Schard; S. indicum and S. maccanii Santapau. S. incanum L and S. coagulans Forsk are the same and they produce fertile hybrids in cross with S. melongena. It is stated that S. melongena is more closely related to S. incanum than to any other species of Solanum. Studies on interspecific cross compatibility and chromosome behaviour at meosis in Ft hybrids between a non-pnckly Solanum pubescens and prickly S. melongena and S. melongena var. insanum, have shown that these species are cross-compatible and retain suficient chromosomal homologies to permit pairing and recombine in heteriozyous state. Besides establishing close relationship between these species, it also establishes that non-prickly and prickly groups can cross with each other.

Eleven Solanum species were classified into three groups on the basis of their interespecific compatibility: (A) Solanum melongena , S. incanum and S. macrocarpum (B) S. integnfolium, S. gilo and S. nodiforum and (C) S. indicum, S. mammosum, S. torvum, S. sisymbnfolium and S. toxicarium. Crosses were compatible within group A or Group B and between group B X' group A but were otherwise incompatible.

Origin

Bnnjal is herbaceous, prickly perennial but cultivated as annual plant. Today’s cultivated forms are quite different from the wild relatives such as Solanum incanum Linn, or S. insanum Roxb. But, it is certain that hybrid vigour through natural and planned crossings and continuous selection by man has played an important role in the evolution of present day cultivated forms of bnnjal.

De Condolle (1886) wrote that Solanum melongena has been known in India since a long time. He also wrote that Thunberg did not mention it in Japan though several varieties are now cultivated in that country. The Greeks and Romans did not know the species and botanists in Europe did not mention it before the beginning of 17th Century, but its cultivation must have spread towards Africa before the middle ages. The existence of a name ‘tabendjalts’ among the Berbers or Kabyies of the province of Algiers established its antiquity in northern Africa.

Vavilov (1928) mentioned about the occurrence of 5. melongena L in the ‘Indian Centre of Origin of Cultivated Plants’ including Assam and Burma. He also mentioned occurrence of a special form of S. melongena with small fruits in the ‘Chinese Centre of Origin of Cultivated Plants’. He subscribed that varietal and specific diversity is highest in India and viewed Indo-Burma region as the possible centre of origin of bnnjal.

CROP IMPROVEMENT

Mostly selection, hybridization and heterosis have been used for improvement of bnnjal.

33

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

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SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Selection

Isolation of desirable plants from a variable population is the pre-requisite of selection. In brinjal, desirable plants are selected from a genetic collection in order to develop a variety. Selected plants are purified and evaluated for superiority against the standard genotype and released as a new variety. Pure line selection is another method in which progeny of each plant is grown and superior progenies are selected in first year, tested in second year and so on. The progenies showing superior performance are selected and evaluated against standard variety and superior lines are released as improved varieties. Improved cultivars which were developed by selection and released for cultivation in different regions of the country are given in Table 2.

Hybridization

A wide range of variability is available to the breeders in brinjal improvement programme. Superior genotypes and genotypes of wider diversity are being used in hybridization for the gain of photosynthetic activity of the plants, exploitation of heterosis for more productivity, incorporation of resistance against destructive insect pests and diseases and development of cultivars of better quality and nutrition.

The objective of hybridization is to produce variability and select desirable plants in the advancing generations in order to produce improved pure lines. While going for hybridization, selection of parents is important. Parents are selected on the basis of desirable phenotypic characters required to be incorporated and also on

Pusa Ankur

35

Pusa Kranti

Pusa Anupam

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Pusa Upkar

the general combining ability (gca) of the lines /parents. Lines which show high gca and more additive genetic variance are given high consideration in hybridisation. Another consideration which should not be ignored is to include locally adapted parent in the programme so that finally selected stain may have wider adaptability and stability in the region. Some old and newly evolved varieties by hybridization are listed in Table 3. It may be seen that one of the parents involved in these varieties was mostly a local parent which resulted into the successful survival of the variety in the area.

Heterosis

Heterosis or hybrid vigour in positive terms is an amount by which the mean of F1 family exceeds better parent. Heterosis in terms of yield of a cross is the result of cumulative effect of interaction of three major contributing components, namely

37

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

38

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

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39

Table 4. Some F, hybrids of brinjal released under publi.

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40

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

number, weight and size of fruits. The magnitude of heterosis can vary due to crossing of parents and their interaction with environment. Normally, crosses showing high dominance variance for number, weight and size of fruits, period of fruiting and total yield are best for exploitation of heterosis. Generally, parents showing wider diversity in morphological phenotypic characters are expected to show increased heterosis. For production of hybrid seed, emasculation and hand pollination are generally employed in brinjal. In order to keep the genetic purity of parental lines, Kalda and Gupta (1986) suggested the method of maintenance of such lines by vegetative propagation. A list of F, hybrids released under the public sector are given in Table 4.

CROP PRODUCTION

Climate

Brinjal is susceptible to severe frost. A long and warm growing season with temperature range of 21°-27°C is most favourable for its successful production. In northern India, the crop is adversely affected during December-February due to low night temperature. Late cultivars, however, withstand mild frost and continue to bear some fruits. The brinjal grown in warm season shows luxurious growth and starts bearing from the initial flowers while in cool season its growth is poor and slow and fruit size, quality and production are adversely affected.

41

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, lUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Table 5. Recommendations of spacing, N, P_,Os and K,0 with farmyard manure

in some states of India

State	Spacing (cm)	NPK (Kg)	FYM (tonne/ha)
Andhra Pradesh	75x54	100-60-60	25-30
Arunachal Pradesh	-	100-60-60	20-25
Assam	75x60	50-50-50	10-20
Bihar	-	160-88-90	20-25
Delhi	75x60	100-80-60	25-30
Gujarat	90x60	100-50-50	15-20
Haryana	75x60 60x60	100-50-50	25-30
Himachal Pradesh	60x45	45-60-40
Karnataka	75x60	125-10-50	25-30
Kerala	75x60	75-40-25	20-25
Madhya Pradesh	60x45	100-60-25	20-25
Maharashtra	75x75	90-40-0	25-30
Mizoram	60x45	50-30-30	10-15
Orrisa	60x45	125-80-110
Punjab	60x45	125-62-30	25-30
Rajasthan	60x60	80-80-60	15-20
Tamil Nadu	75x60	100-50-30	25-30
Uttar Pradesh	75x60	100-50-50	25-30
West Bengal	90x75	120-50-50	15-20

Soil

Brtnjal practically grows on all soils ranging from light sand to heavy clay. Sandy soils are good for an early crop production while silt-loam or clay-loam are good for heavy production. Generally, well drained and fertile sandy-loam soils are preferred for bnnjal cultivation. The best pH range of soil is 5. 5-6.6 for better growth and development of crop. However, several culdvars are grown successfully under high pH level with rich application of farmyard manure.

Sowing season

Bnnjal is cultivated throughout India and can grow under a wide range of climatic conditions. Its sowing and transplanting time varies according to the agroclimatic condition of the region. Under the harsh climate of northern India two sowings are normally done (1) June-July for autumn- winter crop and (2) November for spring summer crop. November sowing is protected from winter injury during night and it takes 6-8 weeks for the seedlings to be of size suitable for transplanting. Seedlings of June-July sowing are ready for transplanting in about four weeks. Sowing time in other parts of the country is from June-September and again in December-January. In hilly regions, sowing of seed is done from March-April and seedlings are transplanted in May.

42

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Raising of nursery

Seeds are sown in finely prepared raised nursery beds which are ~0-fficm hig alternating with water channels. A sufficient amount of fine and fully decomposed farmyard manure (FYM) or compost is well mixed in the nursery soil a few days before sowing. A reasonable amount of single superphosphate and muriate of potash are added along with FYM/compost. A day or two before sowing, the nursery beds should be thoroughly drenched with Captan suspension m order to avoid occurrence of damping off disease. Wheat straw or long dry grass or other mulching materials should be used to cover the soil after sowing till occurrence o seed germination. Two hundred to 300g seed is sufficient to cover one hectare of land with 30,000-45,000 seedlings.

Soil preparation ,

Brinjal is long-duration crop and is a good yielder. It requires soils o goo

fertility. Poor soils should be avoided or should be heavily manured. Soil is pre¬ pared to fine tilth by giving ^H5 ploughings. Well rotten organic manure like farm¬ yard manure or city compost is incorporated into the soil well before the fma

preparation.

Spacing and transplanting

Stocky, healthy seedlings which are free of disease and; shoot and fruit borer infestation and have attained a height of 10-1 2cm with 3-4 leaves are selected and transplanted. Moreover, distance of 60 x 45cm should be given for long fruited cultivars and 75-60cm and 90 x 90cm for vigorous growing, round and high yielding cultivars, respectively. However, it is seen that 45 X 45cm is sufficient for early and dwarf types while 60 x 45 or 60 x 60cm is suficient for semi-vigorous or mid-season varieties. Late or highly vigorous cultivars can have a wider distance to sustain a longer growing and bearing period. Four spacings are generally recommended, i.e. 60 x 45cm, 75 X 60cm and 75 x 75cm depending upon the size and spread of’ the plant besides duration of bearing period. Highly vigorous bushy and late bearing cultivars are given wider distance as compared to dwarf, upright

and early types.

Manures and fertilizers requirement

Brinjal plant has to bear fruits for several months and is a good feeder of macro¬ nutrients. It is observed that brinjal grown following a leguminous crop or green manuring, yields higher than following a non-leguminous or without green manuring crop. Higher soil fertility and better soil conditions have a significant influence on its production. Application of more farmyard manure has a positive response on yield. NPK application is done in form of inorganic manures.

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TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Subbiah and Sundararajan (1990) studied fertilizer requirements for targetted production of bnnjal and found that 7.6kg N, 1.4kg P and 17.3kg % per hectare will be required for production of one tonne of bnnjal fruits (cv. CO 2). It is generally, advised that 1/3— 1/2 dose of nitrogen should be given as basal dose along with other fertilizers. But, it is also reported that nitrogen application as top dressing is usually better utilized by plants than as a basal dressing.

It has been reported that plant growth and yield significantly increase with increasing doses of N to a level of 75kg N per hectare and by the foliar spray of urea at 1 /o concentration. Higher concentration of foliar spray were detrimental. Further, it has also been reported that a starter solution of nitrogen (2.5kg of N per hectare in 500 litre water) has recorded the higher yield of bnn] al than without starter solution. Recommendations on spacing NPK and farmyard manure as compiled by Tandon (1987) for some states of India are given in Table 5.

The deficiency of micronutrients in bnnjal has not been noticed in field. But some workers, however, have studied the effect of their application. The application of minor elements had no effect on vegetative growth of the plant. However, Cu increased the number of flowers and fruits, Zn improved the weight of fruits and Mn showed similar but less pronounced effect on flowering and fruiting. Ravi Chandran and Jerome (1995) studied the beneficial effect of Zn and Cu in a silty clay loam, deficient in Zn and Cu in cv. Annamalai. They reported the highest yield of bnnjal when ZnS04 and CuS04 are applied @ 25kg/ha and 12.5kg/ha, respectively as soil application and in combination with two foliar spray of 0.5% Zn and single spray of 0.15% Cu.

Reddy and Reddy (1986) observed significant increase in yield by application of 200ppm potassium nitrate, 500ppm boron and 500ppm zinc sulphate. Increase in yield was attributed to the increased photosynthesis by the effective translocation of photosynthates.

Interculture and weed control

Bnnjal being a slow growing crop is unable to compete with fast growing weeds.

It is essential to keep weeds under control from the initial growth itself. Shallow inter-cultivation is given to remove the weeds. Care is taken to avoid injury to the developing root system. Three to four hoeing and weeding are normally needed for an effective control of weeds, proper aeration and good growth of the plants. Earthing up is essential when it is grown on ridges. Orbanchae sp. is one of the serious weeds affecting solanaceous crops in some areas. It is a root parasite and should be controlled very effectively.

Chemical weed control is also practiced by farmers in different zones of the country. A pre-planting treatment of 1. 0kg a. i/ha of fluchloralin at Bangalore and 1.5kg a.i./ha followed by one hand weeding 30 days after transplanting at Hyderabad

44

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

were reported to be effective against weeds of brinjal and it increased the yield. Mulching has also beneficial effect in suppression of weeds.

Mulching

Practice of mulching is not common in brinjal but it has several beneficial effects on plants. The most important effect is that it conserves soil-moisture and controls weeds. Mulching in brinjal crop with black polythene film reduces weed growth, accelerates crop growth, induces early bearing and increases yield. Sarkanda grass (Erianthus arundinaceus) used as mulching material in brinjal has given beneficial effect and higher yield in Haryana.

Cropping system Brinjal is grown in different crop rotations of cropping system are as follows:	throughout the year. The sequences
Brinjal	Turnip	Cowpea
(July-December)	(December-February)	(March-July)
Brinjal	Onion Green	Squash melon (Tinda)
(July-November)	(December-February)	(February-June)
Cabbage	Brinjal	Radish
(October-January)	(February-June)	(June-September)
Cowpea	Brinjal	Radish
(March-June)	(July-December)	(January-March)
Cauliflower	Brinjal	Cowpea
(November-February)	(March-June)	(July-October)
Pea	Brinjal	Bhindi
(October-January)	(February-June)	(July-October)

Leafy vegetables like spinach, amaranth, fenugreek ( methi ), coriander and mint can be grown in between the rows of brinjal. The root crops like carrot, turnip, radish can be grown on the ridges of the plots of brinjal.

Irrigation

Contrary to common belief that brinjal does not, need irrigation, it requires several irrigations for successful cultivation. Timely irrigation is essential for fruit- set and its development. High yields are obtained under optimum moisture conditions. When there is danger of frost during winter, the soil should be kept moist to save the crop from frost injury. It is estimated that jKXPHOcm irrigation is required for normal brinjal crop.

Under rainfed conditions in Haryana, brinjal when transplanted in paired rows

45

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

in furrows 45cm apart with 60cm wide ridge, resulted in better harvesting and effective utilization of rain water. Drip irrigation was beneficial for reducing water use and weed control. The water used in drip irrigation was only 24.47cm as. compared to 69.18cm under furrow system of irrigation.

Use of growth substances

Beneficial effects of growth substances on fruit-set in brinjal have been reported by several workers. Application of 2, 4-D (2ppm) at flowering induces parthenocarpy, increases fruit-set, advances fruit maturation and significantly increases the total yield. A significant increase in yield (50%) was obtained by whole plant spray of 2, 4-D at 2 ppm at intervals of one week over a period of 60-70 days from commencement of flowering. Spraying of 2, 4-D (2.5 ppm), 4 CPA (20ppm) and n-metatolylphthalamic acid (0.5%) promotes fruit-set in brinjal. NAA (60ppm) alone or in combination with BA (30ppm) applied on open flowers improved fruit set and their development and spraying of n-metatolylphthalamic acid at 250- 500ppm considerably increases the early yield.

Root-dipping of one-month-old seedlings in ascorbic acid, GA3, IAA and thiourea advances the flowering by 4-5 days. Highest yield was obtained from plants whose roots were dipped in GA3 + ascorbic acid each at 250ppm solution.

Spray of Mixtalol (long chain C 24-C 34 aliphatic alcohols) on cv. Arka Navneet of brinjal has given beneficial effect, with single spray of 4ppm solution.

PLANT PROTECTION

Pests

Jassids, leaf eating beetles, shoot and fruit borers and mites are the main insect pests that damage the brinjal crop.

Jassids: They remain on the under surface of the leaves and are pigmented- green. They suck the sap of the leaves. The leaves become cup-shaped and develop signs of scorching along their margins. Both adults and nymphs are harmful.

Epilachna beetle: Both adults and grubs damage by feeding on the leaves. The affected leaves give a lace-appearance and turn brown, dry up and fall down.

Shoot and Fruit borer: These are the worst enemies of this crop. Its larvae on emergence bore into the young shoots and fruits. The drooping shoots in the crop is an indication of its presence. Plant growth gets stunted. Affected fruits get rot and fall down.

Control measures: Start control measures in 2-3 weeks of transplanting. Nip off the withering shoots and pick up the bored fruits daily and bury them deep into the soil. Spray with 0.025% carbaryl or 0.05% endosulfan when flowers appear. Repeat the spray 2 times at fortnight interval. Avoid spray at fruiting stage.The above schedule will also control jassids and epilachna beetles.

46

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Mites: These are red, minute insects and are found under surface of the leaves and form webs. They suck sap of the plants and leaves turn yellow and drop off. Spray 0.02% Metasystox or 0.03% Kelthane or 0.3% Methyl parathion as soon as pest appears.

Diseases

Dumping off: It is a very destructive disease in nursery bed especially during rainy season. The seedlings are attacked at ground level and as a result they topple over.

Control measures : Treat the seeds with Thiram/Captaf/ceresan or Agrosan G.N. @2g/kg of seed before sowing. Sowing of seeds in a raised nursery bed with proper drainage, drenching nursery bed with Thiram/ Captaf or any copper fungicide @2g/litre of water at 10-15 days interval and removing the affected seedlings will control the disease.

Little leaf: The diseased plants produce small yellow leaves. The plants remain stunted and there is a lot of bushy growth. Affected plants normally do not bear fruits.

Mosaic: The disease causes yellow patches on the leaves which are intercropped with green patches. The plants remain stunted in growth and bear less number of flowers and fruits.

Control measures: Little leaf and mosaic have common control measures. Remove all the diseased seedlings from the nursery bed and transplant only healthy ones. Uproot the diseased plants from the fields as soon as they are observed and replace them with healthy seedlings. Avoid ratooning. Spray of Rogor in nursery stage @1 ml/litre of water is advised.

Phomopsis blight: Due to this disease, dark-brown spots are formed on the leaves and stem. On the fruits, soft, water decayed portions are observed which later on turn black. The whole or major portion of the fruit may rot. This disease is a major problem in seed crop.

Control measures: Collect seed from healthy plants. Treat the seed with Thiram or Captaf @ 2.5g/kg of seed. Spray the crop with Diathane Z 78 at 0.2% concentration (i.e. 2g of fungicide/litre of water) at 7-10 days interval. Burn the diseased plants and fruits.

Harvesting and marketing

Bnnjal fruits are harvested when they have developed a good colour and marketable size, are still immature, tender and have not lost culinary qualities. The attractive bright, glossy appearance having freshness and optimum size of fruit are qualities for good market price. The fruits are harvested with stalk at joint where they are attached to the branch. Variety NDB 25 have soft joint and is easy to

47

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

harvest while others need help of sharp instrument. Care is taken in avoiding injury to the branch. Frequency of harvesting shall depend on the size of fruit. Small sized are harvested more frequently than bigger or heavier fruits. Fruits should be harvested in the afternoon to avoid sun scalding. Fruits are sprinkled with water, to keep them fresh. They are packed in baskets for local market and arranged in cartons for distant markets.

Yield

Yield of brinjal should vary according to the region, cultivar and duration of the crop. Early crops normally yield 20-30 m tonnes/ha while long-duration crops yield 35-40m tonnes/ha. Many F! hybrids are being cultivated. Their yield at high fertility level varies from 40-80m tonnes/ha.

Post-harvest handling and storage

There are several diseases observed in brinjal after harvesting of the crop till marketing. Market survey conducted recently in West Bengal indicated that fruit rot is the major disease caused by Phytophthora aphamdematum var. mcotianae; Fusanum oxysporum, Phythium debaryanum and Rhizopus solamfer. Maximum incidence of fruit rot occurred during the monsoon months of June-October when temperature and relative humidity usually remain high.

Fruit rot also occurs during storage which is prevented by post-harvest treatments of brinjal in a solution containing 200ppm NAA in combination with 900ppm Prochloraz that retards fruit senscence and decaying.

Brinjal green fruits had longest shelf-life of 4 weeks based on the physiological loss in weight, discolouration, spoilage and C02 injury during storage at 8-1 0°C under controlled atmosphere with initial concentration of 5% C02. Room temperature of 20-22°C was not, however, suitable for storage under modified atmosphere. Brinjal fruits should not be kept in the same store with other ethylene producing fruits. Brinjal fruits are better stored at 20°C than at 6°C and in perforated polythene bags than in open boxes. The fruits can also be stored for 7-10 days in fairly good condition at 7.2-1 0°C with 85-95% relative humidity.

Packing, packaging materials and export

The most suitable cultivars for exporting are harvested towards evening hours without having any external injury. The freshly harvested fruits are cleaned properlv by washing them under sprinkler. They are then graded. Uniform, superior quality fruits, free from disease and insect’s blemishes are individually wrapped in the tissue paper and arranged in suitable cartons for exporting them to foreign markets.

In Israel, sometimes they use PVC stretch film for packing of individual fruits. Currendy, they pack several fruits (10-25) pre-treated with a solution of Prochloraza

48

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

and NAA inside an unperforated polyethylene lining bag, together with 10 layers of tissue paper to prevent water condensation. This method prevents weight loss and maintains fruit quality during 14 days of storage at 12°C-17 days at 20°C and helps in exporting of brinjal to other countries.

Chilli and Capsicums (Capsicum annum L.)

A A Desiipande

Area and production

Chillies and capsicums both belong to the same capsicum species of Capsicum annuum. Chilli also known as hot pepper was introduced into India from Brazil in the 16th Century by the Portuguese. Within a span of over four centuries it has spread to an area of around 0.8 million covering almost all states of the country. The major chilli growing states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharastra, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal and Rajasthan in that order and account for more than 80% of the total area and production. The area and production keeps varying depending on price in the previous year and the weather conditions. Area has been varying between 0.982-0.816 million ha and production 61,82,000 and 86,200 tonnes of dry chilli. Andhra Pradesh has been leading both in area and production contributing on an average of 25% of the total area and over 40-50% of the total production. The major chilli growing districts in different states are given in Table 1. Chillies have adapted very well to the Indian conditions so much so that India is considered as secondary centre of origin.

Table 1 . Major chilli growing states and districts in India

State	Area ('OOOha) Range (1 989-90 to 1993-94)	Production ('OOOt) Range (1989-90 to 1993-94)	Major districts
Andhra Pradesh	203.5-249.40	259.9-400.60	Prakasam, Khammam, Guntur, Warangal
Karnataka	128.70-161.00	36.60-97.40	Dharwad, Belgaum
Maharashtra	113.8-132.7	58.7-68.40	Nagpur, Chandrapur
Orissa	90.3-94.5	68.5-75.6	Cuttack, Koraput
Tamil Nadu	49.8-86.5	27.7-45.7	Chidambaraner, Ramanathpuram, Tiruchinapalli
West Bengal	48.5-55.10	36.5-44.4	24 Paraganas
Rajasthan	38.6-52.30	34.7-64.7	lodhpur
Madhya Pradesh	44.7-51.00	11.2-17.20	Khargaon
All India	816.2-962.10	618.20-862.10

Source: Diectorate of Economics & Statistics , Ministry of Agriculture, Govt, of India.

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TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

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Capsicum also known as bell pepper, is restricted to cooler regions of the country and penpheri of cities with cooler weather. As such capsicums growing around cities like Bangalore, Belgaum, Mysore (Karnataka), Niligiris (Tamil Nadu), Pune, Thane (Maharashtra), Ranchi (Bihar), Darjeeling (West Bengal), Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Hills of Uttar Pradesh.

The major countries producing bell peppers are China, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Turkey, Korea, Hungary, Spain, Bulgaria, Romania, Italy, Yugoslavia, Nigeria, Ghana, Tunisia, Mexico, USA, central America, Argentina and Peru.

Chilli is mainly used in culinary adding flavour, colour, vitamin (A, C, E, P) and pungency. Therefore, they are indispensable to the Indian and many African, Asian and South American people. Dry chilli, powdered or ground into a paste and even green chillies are used every day in Indian kitchens for curries, sambar, rasam and other savory dishes to impart pungency, colour and flavour to food items. It is widely used in the manufacture of curry powder, curry paste and all kinds of pickles and preparing sauces, soups, salads etc.

In food and beverage industries, chilli is being used in the form of oleoresin which permits better distribution of colour flavour in food. Capsicin, the pungent principle, is used in the preparation of balms, where as the colour extracts (carotenoids pigments) find use as colour addititives in food industry, poultry and prawn feed industry. A non conventional use of chilli is in the self defence sprays which are gaining popularity in USA. The spray consists of capsicum oleoresin at ultra high emission rate which temporarily immobilises the attacker.

In India no dish is complete without chillies. Chillies are used as whole pods, dry powder, in pickles, and stuffed. They are used in a dish called bhazzi. Raw green as well as fried one are used as such for eating.

Table 3. Country-wise exports of capsicum including chillies (tonnes)

Year	1987	1988	1989	1990	1991
India	4,372	10,543	7,950	11,983	24,483
Spain	18,089	16,671	13,062	17,694	16,957
South Korea	509	797	5,419	410	335
Pakistan	5,829	14,105	7,827	5,462	6,982
Hungary	4,037	5,419	6,216	4,482	4,271
China	23,893	25,579	29,071	31,091	23,663
Thailand	599	1,353	1,084	761	1,032
Mexico	1,841	2,759	7,109	9,084	7,699
Morocco	1,083	1,256	2,900	4,437	6,826
Turkey	2,872	3,999	3,723	4,070	4,365
Total	63,124	82,481	84,406	89,474	96,613

Source: Fruits and Tropical Products, commonwealth Secretariat.

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TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Capsicum is mostly consumed raw in green mature forms unlike in Europe and US where they are consumed in red ripe form in salads, cooked, mixed and stuffed vegetable.

India has emerged today as the foremost producer and exporter of chillies contributing to almost one fourth of the world production. Besides India, other major producers and exporters of chillies are China, Pakistan, Morocco, Mexico and Turkey. The export of chillies and chilli products from India have been steadily increasing both in volume and value from 8,227 tonnes and Rs 9,66,54,000 in 1984-85 to 51,891.72 tonnes and Rs 2,09,61,00,000 in 1996-97 respectively (Table 2). Indian chillies are exported mainly to Sri Lanka, USA, Canada, UK, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Malaysia, Germany, and at times to Pakistan and Bangladesh. Country-wise exports of chillies is given in Table 3.

Origin and distribution

The genus Capsicum originated in the new world tropics and sub tropics. The C. annuum L. the most cultivated species among the capsicum species was domesticated in Mexico. Peppers were unknown in the old world unul sixteenth century having been introduced into Spain by Columbus on his return trip in 1493. Cultivation spread from the Mediterranean Europe to England by 1548 and central Europe by close of the sixteenth century. The Portuguese brought Capsicum from Brazil to India during. 1584. Elowever, based on the distinct type of variability available in the North-eastern States, it can be presumed that spread of Capsicum in those regions is independent from elsewhere in India. It is thought that Christian missionaries direcdy introduced Capsicum from South America.

There are five domesticated Capsicum species, namely C. baccatum L., C. pubescens R and P which are clearly distinct by any taxonomic criterion plus a species complex which is currently treated as containing three independently domesticated species. C. annuum L., C. frustescens L. and C. Chinense Jaq. Capsicum annuum was domesticated in Mexico and is the most important species on a world scale, since it includes all the commercially important sweet peppers and many spice types. The centre for morphological diversity for C. annuum is probably Mexico.

Capsicum frutescens: These are grown or exploited throughout Latin America. These peppers have also been introduced to the old world and are grown where extreme pungency is required such as oleoresin extraction. Large fruited types of C. frutescens include the Tabasco pepper. They are grown in middle America and other Caribbean countries. They have been introduced to the old world. In India we find them growing in coastal Kerala, Karnataka, Maharasthra, Vizianagar district of Andhra Pradesh and north-eastern States.

Capsicum chinense: This is the most variable of the domesticated species and

52

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

the most widespread within Latin America. Thick types are common in West Indies and Andean region. Small fruited types are found in Amazonia. C. chinense reached West Africa soon after the American discovery but it does not seem to be widely known in the Asian tropics. In India we do find C. chinense in backyard of Kerala homes and also in the north-eastern states.

Capsicum baccatum: This species is grown on a garden and field scale in South America, particularly in Peru, Bolivia and Brazil. C. baccatum reached Europe by the seventeenth century but is not widely grown in Africa or Asia, because C. annuum and C. frutescens were already well established. However, there seem to be no ecological constraints which would prevent wider cultivation of this species. Though this species is not known in India outside research station, it has very good yield potential and useful genes mainly powdery mildew and anthracnose fruit rot resistance.

Capsicum pubescens: This is a high land pepper found throughout the Andean region and now grown also in the highlands of Middle America. It seems to have a narrower ecological amplitude than the other domesticated peppers. It does not set fruit satisfactorily in many parts of the lowland tropics nor in the field or green house in many temperate countries. Its morphological variation is also more limited

Table 4. Morphological characteristics which distinguish the domesticated Capsicum species and their wild relatives from each other and their place of origin

Species	Wild/ cultivated	Calyx teeth	Corolla	Flowers/ node	Seeds
C. annum annuum	Cultivated	present	White large	1	Yellow	smooth
C. annuum var. aviculare	Wild progenitor	Absent	White small	1 (3-4)	Yellow	smooth
C. baccatum var. pendulum	Cultivated	Present	White with yellow/green spot	1	Yellow	smooth
C. baccatum var. baccatum	Wild progenitor	Present	White with yellow/green spot	2-3	Yellow	smooth
C. chinense	Cultivated	Absent	Dull-white	2-3	Yellow	smooth
C. frutescens	Cultivated	Present	Greenish- white	2-3	Yellow	smooth
C. pubescens	Cultivated	Absent	Purple	1 (2-3)	Rough
C. cardenasii	Wild progenitor	Absent	Purple campanulate	2-3	Yellow	smooth
C. eximium	Wild progenitor	Absent	Magenta to white with yellow/green spots	2-3	Yellow	smooth

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TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

than that of the other domesticated peppers. It has pungent fruits with thick pericarps and lots of moisture.

Taxonomy

Genus Capsicum is divided into three sections by Hunziker (1956). Monotypic Tubocapsicum, Pseudoacmstus and Capsicum. Section Capsicum includes 22 wild species and five domesticated species. All the species in the genus have chromosome number n=12 except C. cihatum and C. scolnikianum which have n = 13 chromosomes.

The distinguishing characters of the five domesticated species and their wild relatives is given in Table 4.

The domesdcated Capsicum spp. can be grouped into two groups depending upon the cross compatibility.

1. The white flowered which includes C. annuum, C. chmense, C. frutescens (C. annuum group) and C. baccatum var. baccatum and C. baccatum var. pendulum (baccatum group).

2. The purple flowered comprising of C. pubescens, C. eximium and C. cardenasii.

CROP IMPROVEMENT

Breeding methods depend on the breeding system of the crop. Chilli and capsicum can be grouped in often cross pollinated crops. Cross pollination is reported upto 63%.

Floral biology , crossing and selfing : Majority of the flowers open at 5 am. The stigma is recepdve from a day earlier to anthesis and continues for two days after anthesis. The pollen grains are fertile a day before anthesis with maximum fertility on the day of anthesis. In chilli flower emasculation and hybrdization can be done simultaneously. The extent of cross pollination depends on flower structure which varies from variety to variety. The traits which effect cross pollination are extent of style length above the anther level, time of dehiscence of anther. Other factors which affect the extent of cross pollination are temperature especially in capsicum, wind direction kind and number of insect visitors.

To maintain purity of chilli and capsicum lines, isolation distance of 400-500m is safe. Chilli breeding lines can be maintained by hand selfing at bud stage or caging the plants individually or collectively with nets preferably of 40 mesh size.

For crossing a bud one day prior to anthesis is ideal for emasculation. The bud can be pollinated on the same day. However in capsicum, especially if the temperatures are higher, emasculation is advisable two to three days prior to anthesis and pollination is caried out on the day of anthesis. In the peninsular India crossing can be done in chilli throughout the day during kharif and rabl with good crop management. During summer fair success is achieved if crossing is taken up early in the morning or late evening.

54

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57

PLS-Pure line selection.

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

Breeding objectives: In chilli breeding objectives would include unripe fruit colour, ripe fruit colour, shape, size, pungency, retention of colour on storage, pericarp thickness and seed content. In capsicum, the major attributes are the immature fruit colour, shape and size of the fruit and flesh thickness. The above attributes vary with the consumer preferences.

The other objectives should include traits to overcome production constraints. The major production constraints are the diseases (virus complex, Anthracnose fruit rot, powdery mildew, cercospora leaf spot, Fusarium wilt), non availability of suitable cultivars, insect pests (thnps, aphids, mites, borer and gall midge), drought and excess moisture. Besides, in capsicum, a true tropical type with good vegetative

growth, good fruit set at high temperature and virus resistance is of immediate requirement.

Breeding methods : Chilli/ capsicum varieties have been developed using one of the following listed methods:

1. Pedigree breeding with selections from superior cultivar/land races (pure line selection).

— Pedigree breeding following hybridisation between two superior cultivars.

3. Transfer of single genes or a group of useful genes from primitive or wild through the backcross pedigree method.

4. Intercross between different backcross families with different target genes

Table 6. Important Chilli land races of India Land races

Nallapada, Gollapada, Elichipur, Yellow Nellore, Warangal, Lanka, Shirla, Gati Seema Mirapa (C. (rutesoens), Erupu Mirapa, Pothakaya, Sonnakai, Erra Mirapa Baijuri, Suryamukhi, Jayanthapuri, Latabh, Sabour, Tiger Pattanaya, Mota, Longia, Rahri, Patna, Sabour Ghollar, Patta, Resham Patta, Lai Pathi Sanuri, Samane

Byadgi Khaddi, Byadgi Dabba, Devanur Dubba, Sankeshwar, Chincholi, Arsikere, Gowribidanur, Chikkaballapur, Mysore Salem, Kollegal Kandhari

Malkapur, Ellichipur, Kakni, Batki, Pandurani Sankeshwar, Tarapuri, Malkapur, Bhiwapuri, Pandurani, jhareia, jalgaon Phapda, Lavangi, Sharagaon, Surkhoddi, Achalpur. Pandi, Kalipandi Dakhini, Bhala, Suryamukhi

Sirhindi, Sanari Red, Sanauri Yellow, Rajpura, lullundar, Shokati, Laundghi, Chokapal, Rakhipata, Lambhal, Gura Theni, Petai, Ramnad Munad, Sattur Samoa Kodai Milligai, Sannam Kalyanpur

Andhra Pradesh

Assam

Bihar

Gujarat

Himachal Pradesh Karnataka

Kerala

Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra

Orissa

Punjab

Tamil Nadu

Uttar Pradesh

58

SOLANACEOUS VEGETABLES

Table 7. Chilli varieties under testing in AICVIP trials

Entries	Year	Source
BC 28	1997	Orissa Agricultural University Bhubaneshwar
LCA334	1997	Regional Research Station, Lam
Phule Sai	1997	MPKV, Rahuri
Byadagi Kaddi	1998	UAS, Dharwad
Byadagi Dabbi	1996	UAS, Dharwad
PMR 57/88K	1996	IIHR, Bangalore
RHRC50-1	1996	MPKV, Rahuri
Sel 217621	1996	PAU, Batinda
Sel 1-1	1996	PAU, Batinda
RCH 1	1995	Rajasthan Agricultural University, Durgapura
LCA301	1995	Regional Research Station, Lam
LCA 324	1995	Regional Research Station, Lam
KDCS 10	1995	CSAUJ, Kalyanpur
HC 28	1993	HAU/ Hisar
Surakta	1993	PAU, Ludhiana
AKC44	1993	PKV, Akola
HC 44	1993	HAU, Hisar
RHRC Cluster pendant	1993	MPKV, Rahuri
RHRC Cluster erect	1993	MPKV, Rahuri
RHRC 16-5	1993	MPKV, Rahuri
BC 24	1993	OAUT, Bhubaneshwar
Pb. Surkh	1993	PAU, Ludhiana
Chilli Cuchchedar	1993	PAU, Ludhiana
BC 14-2	1993	OAUT, Bhubaneshwar

Table 8. Chilli and Capsicum hybrids presently in the market and their sources

Hybrid	Source
Chilli
SHPH 35, SHPH 47, HOE 888	NOVARTIS
PROCH 01 , PROCH 02, CH 1 04	PRO AGRO
ARCH 02, ARCH 236, ARCH 226, ARCH 228	ANKUR SEEDS
NPH 70, NPH 120	NATH SEEDS
BSS 138, BSS 141	BEJOSHEETAL
SUNCROW F,No.16, SUNCROW F, No. 86235	SUNGROW
Tejaswini, MHP 62, MHP 63	MAHYCO
Capsicum
Larie, Indira	NOVARTIS
Hira	NATH
Green Gold	MAHYCO
Pusa Deepti	IARI, Katrain

from diverse germplasm to combine several disease resistances and new horticultural traits.

5. Interspecific hybridisation and selection following back cross-pedigree methods.

59

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

6. Haploid diploidisation

7. Heterosis breeding: Commercial F] hybridization is being practised by using hand emasculation and pollination, only hand pollination either using genic or genic cytoplasmic male sterility system.

Description of varieties and hybrids: In India majority of the new varieties developed are either through pure line selection or pedigree method of breeding. Since India has a large variability already available which is well adapted, improved varieities could be easily developed through simple pure line selection as well as mass or modified mass selections. However, in capsicum most of the varieties and hybrids commercially cultivated are introduced ones. In recent years emphasis is being laid on development of F] hybrids.

The various chilli and capsicum varieties developed in India with their important features are given in Table 5, the major land races in different states in Table 6, and varieties presendy under testing with All-India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Programme (AICVIP) in Table 7.

Besides chilli varieties mentioned in Table 5, there are other varieties released by respective states, viz 206 (Prakash) x 200 (Kiran), CA 1068 (Aparna), LCA 305 all from Lam, Kalyanpur red from CSAUT, Kalyanpur; Sabour Angur, Arun and Aral from Rajendra Agricultural University, Sabour.

Besides varieties, there are ample numbers of F, hybrid chilli varieties marketed by various private seed companies. In capsicum also a few hybrids are available in the market from private seed companies given in Table 8

CROP PRODUCTION

Soil

Chillies can be grown on wide range of soils but well drained loam soil rich in organic matter is best suited for chilli cultivation. As a rainfed crop, chilli can be grown successfully in medium to heavy textured soils like clay and clay loams provided proper drainage is there to prevent water stagnation. Chilli crop will not withstand water-logged conditions for more than a day. A good crop of chilli can be raised on red sandy and sandy loam soils (Alfisols and Inceptsols) as an irrigated crop, with copious amount of organic manuring and fertilizer application. Though chilli is grown on soils with a pH range of less than 5.0 like the acid latente soils of coastal areas and heavy rainfall ghat (mountain) regions to soils of more than 8.0pH like the Alluvial soils of north India and black cotton soils (Vertisols) of the Deccan plateau, it performs best at a soil pH of about 6.5. Saline and sodic soils hinder crop growth and fruit development. Most extensive cultivation of chilli can be seen on Vertisols covering the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. Though the vegetative growth and crop yields are higher on heavy textured soils, the quality of the fruits is better in lighter soils than heavy

60

SOLANACEOU5 VEGETABLES

soils. Bell pepper performs best on red loams and alluvial soil with slightly acidic pH and having good drainage and aeration.

Climate

Chilli crop performs well in warm humid tropical and subtropical regions extending from equator to 45° latitude on both southern and northern hemisphere. It is being cultivated from sea level to almost 660m above mean sea level. A frost free period of about 130-150 days with temperature range of 15°-35°C is optimum for chilli cultivation. Comparatively milder climatic conditions are preferred for sweet or bell pepper cultivation as compared to hot or chilli pepper. A soil temperature of 10°C or less retards crop growth where as a gradual rise in temperature from 15°-35°C results in increased crop growth rate. Further rise in temperature is likely to reduce the vegetative growth period thereby resulting in early flowering of peppers. Prevalence of low temperatures during fruit ripening stage is likely to delay colour development of fruits. Temperatures beyond 40 C result in poor fruit set as well as severe fruit drop. This is further aggravated if the relative humidity is low and accompanied with dry winds.

As a rainfed crop chilli performs well in regions receiving rainfall of 600-1 200mm spread over four to five months. Areas receiving less than 600mm of rainfall require a few protective irngations for better crop yields. Dunng the early crop establishment period the crop prefers cloudy drizzling raids with moderate sun shine and high relative humidity. Successful crop of bell pepper can be raised only under irrigated condition. Providing shade to sweet or bell peppers through poly or net houses during summer and only shade nets in open during other seasons is beneficial. Though high relative humidity is good for the crop growth, fruit set and increased crop yield, it is likely to be more prone to foliar and fruit diseases like mildews and

Anthracnose.

Season

In India chilli is mainly grown during monsoon or kharif season (June-October) as a rainfed crop or with supplemental irngations. In many parts of the country it is grown in all the three main cropping seasons also. During monsoon the crop is mainly grown for dry red chillies while in other seasons it is mostly for green chillies. However in plains when it is grown as a summer crop it is more likely to get affected by complex virus diseases. Chilli can not be grown during winter in North India as the temperatures are quite low, which the crop can not withstand. In South India if kharif crop is planted late, i.e. beyond July, the crop is likely to suffer from heavy infestation of pests and diseases. Gradual reduction in yields were noticed when the planting time was delayed from July-December. As a rainy season crop it performs well in Alluvial and black cotton soils which have high

61

TEXTBOOK OF VEGETABLES, TUBERCROPS AND SPICES

water-holding capacity. On light textured sandy and sandy loams which are freely drained and have low water-holding capacity, good yields are obtained by providing three to four protective irrigations. Capsicums are known to perform better in winter or rabi season and when grown in summer, yields are very low due to poor crop growth and fruit set and also severe diseases, especially virus except in hills. At higher altitudes in Himachal Pradesh and Nilgiris, the crop is taken as summer crop sowing being done in March-April.

Cropping system

With the pressure on cultivated land increasing, one way to boost production is to increase the crop productivity and the other alternative is to improve the land productivity per unit area and time through multiple cropping. Multiple cropping is the technique of growing more than one crop either together or in a sequence in an year or in an appropriate time span on the same piece of land. Cropping systems like intercropping, sequential cropping, mixed cropping, relay cropping etc. are regularly practiced by the farmers of the tropical countries. The major objectives being the better harnessing of natural crop growth resources, improvement of soil fertility, crop diversification to improve overall productivity even during the periods of adversities like climatic aberrations and pest problems. Rotating wide spaced crops with narrow spaced crops will reduce weed intensity, as in wide spaced crops the intercultivation is effective. Inclusion of chilli or tobacco are known to reduce weed intensity as the intercultivations are done both ways and for long period in these crops. Incidence of thrips, mites and nematodes to chilli crop is severe when chilli is grown year after year or in vegetable based crop rotation than when chilli crop is rotated with sorghum, maize, pulse or groundnut crop. Incidence of fruit rot, bacterial diseases and mosaic can also be minimized by raising chilli crop in rotation with cereals and pulses.

It is general experience of the farmers in Dharwad (Karnataka) transition belt that sorghum yields are higher when raised after chilli crop. Chilli-paddy are com¬ mon rotations followed in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Sequential intercropping systems involving capsicums were found to be more remunerative than simple crop sequence in the north. Intercropping systems involving chilli are productive as well as more remunerative. The mixed cropping of chilli and cotton is taken as a safeguard against failure of chilli crop due to leaf curl disease. Chilli is generally grown as a mixed crop under rainfed conditions and as a sole crop under